Category: Basic Music Theory

Articles and ideas that center around more basic levels of Western music theory.

A comparison of different musical modes used in different parts of the world
This article looks at the musical modes and scales that have been used in various forms of music for centuries or millennia. Modes are an essential element of many musical traditions, and they play a significant role in shaping the character and emotion of a piece of music. I wanted to provide a brief introduction to a few modes.

There are several different musical modes that have been used in different parts of the world. Some of the most well-known modes include the major and minor scales, which are used in Western classical music and many other styles of music. The major scale consists of seven notes, while the minor scale consists of seven notes and is characterized by a more melancholic sound.

Other musical modes include the pentatonic scale, which is commonly used in Asian and African music, and the blues scale, which is used in blues and jazz music. The pentatonic scale consists of five notes and is known for its simple and repetitive melodies, while the blues scale is characterized by its distinctive “blue notes” that give it a unique sound.

Before we continue it may be good to describe the difference between modes and scales.

What’s the difference between modes and scales?

Scales and modes are closely related, but they are not the same thing.

A scale is a series of notes that are organized in a specific pattern of whole and half steps (in Western music). The most well-known scales in Western music are the major scale and the minor scale, which consist of seven notes and are used in many different styles of music.

Wester “church” modes, on the other hand, are scales that are based on the major scale, but with a different starting point. For example, the Dorian mode is a mode that is based on the major scale, but it starts on the second scale degree instead of the first. The result is a scale that has a different pattern of whole and half steps and a different character and mood.

There are seven different modes that are based on the major scale, each with its own unique character and mood. The modes are:
- Ionian (major scale)
- Dorian
- Phrygian
- Lydian
- Mixolydian
- Aeolian (minor scale)
- Locrian
In addition to these modes, there are also many other scales and modes that are used in different musical traditions around the world, each with its own unique character and mood.

Okay, back to describing a couple different scales/modes.

Arabic maqam

One of the most interesting and unique musical modes is the Arabic maqam, which is used in Middle Eastern music. The maqam consists of a series of scales and melodies that are used to create intricate and ornate compositions. The maqam is known for its highly expressive and emotional sound, which is often used to convey a wide range of emotions, from joy and happiness to sadness and melancholy.

The Arabic maqam is a musical mode that is used in many styles of music throughout the Middle East and North Africa. It is characterized by its intricate melodies and ornate ornamentation.

One of the key features of the Arabic maqam is its use of quartertones, which are intervals that are smaller than a half step in Western music. The use of quartertones gives the maqam a more chromatic and dissonant sound, as the notes do not fit neatly into the Western scale system.

In addition to its use of quartertones, the Arabic maqam also features a series of scales and melodies created from trichords, tetrachord, and pentachords. These scales and melodies are known as “maqamat,” and they are the building blocks of the maqam. There are many different maqamat, each with its own unique character and emotional impact.

One of the most common maqamat in the Arabic maqam is the “hijaz,” which is known for its intense and passionate sound. The hijaz is often used to convey a sense of yearning or longing, and it is often used in love songs and other emotional compositions.

Other common maqamat in the Arabic maqam include the “bayati,” which has a more peaceful and contemplative sound, and the “sikah,” which is known for its bright and joyful sound.

I love the way this video explains the modes or scales:

In addition to these modes, there are many other musical modes that are used in different parts of the world, each with its own unique character and emotional impact. For example, the Indian raga is a series of scales and melodies that are used in Indian classical music and is known for its highly meditative and spiritual sound.

Indian Raga Scales/Modes

This paragraph will not do justice to the deep topic of Indian Ragas, but it may spark some curiosity for further investigation!

In Indian classical music, a raga is a series of scales and melodies that are used to create intricate and expressive compositions. Each raga has its own specific set of notes and melodic patterns, and it is associated with a specific mood or emotion.

There are many different scales and modes that are used in Indian classical music, and each one has its own unique character and emotional impact. Some of the most common scales used in Indian ragas include:
- Saptak: The saptak is a seven-note scale that is similar to the major scale in Western music. It consists of seven notes within the octave.
- Ashtak: The ashtak is an eight-note scale that is similar to the major scale, but with an additional note added between the seventh and octave degrees. It is used in many different ragas, and it is known for its bright and joyful sound.
- Shuddha Saptak: The shuddha saptak is a seven-note scale that is similar to the natural minor scale in Western music. It consists of the seven notes of the octave, but with a different pattern of whole and half steps. It is known for its melancholic and introspective sound.
- Kafi: The kafi is a nine-note scale. It is characterized by its use of quartertones and its intricate melodic patterns, and it is known for its expressive and emotional sound.
This video gives an incredible explanation and examples of some of the scales:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=geSOK65rhdQ

The scales and modes used in Indian classical music are an essential element of the raga system, and they play a significant role in shaping the character and emotion of a piece of music. By carefully choosing and manipulating the scales and modes used in a raga, a musician can create a wide range of different characters and moods, from joyful and upbeat to melancholic and introspective
December 22, 2022
Should you study music theory? reasons for and against
I get asked and even ask myself sometimes, “should musicians learn music theory?” When I was completing my undergraduate work in Theory and Composition there was always this air of prestige and expectation from some of my pop-music friends. Some knew no theory and played wonderfully, but they would usually express a desire to learn music theory. Music theory is very useful up to a point. At a certain level of theory it gets pretty stuffy and impractical and unusable in the creation of music.

In this article I go over a few reasons musicians may want to learn music theory and give a few reasons why they may not. There is a lot of grey area in this, meaning musicians usually don’t just go one way or the other but rather somewhere in between.

Why study music theory?

The study of music theory can be of great value to musicians, providing a more nuanced understanding of the fundamental principles of the art. It serves to facilitate communication between musicians, aiding in the creation and arrangement of musical works, as well as in the process of improvisation and interpretation. Some specific benefits of learning music theory include the ability to communicate more effectively with one’s colleagues, an enhancement of creative abilities, an improvement in one’s overall musicality, and a more refined performance. In some cases, a thorough knowledge of music theory may even be a requirement for certain musical careers, such as teaching or composition.

A few reasons to learn music theory

Here are a few specific ways in which learning music theory can benefit a musician:
1. Improved communication: Music theory provides a common language that musicians can use to communicate with one another. This can be particularly useful when working in a group setting, as it allows musicians to discuss and understand the various elements of a piece of music, such as the key, harmony, and form. I used to be shy when someone would ask, “can you move that to the key of G?” And I didn’t know what they even meant. Now I know and it certainly helps with playing with others and with my confidence.
2. Enhanced creativity: Music theory can help musicians to understand the underlying principles of music, which can in turn inspire new ideas and approaches to music-making. For instance, understanding how different chord progressions work can help a musician come up with new melodies or harmonies. (check out my article on Bach’s chord progressions)
3. Enhanced musicality: Learning music theory can help musicians to develop a deeper understanding of the structure and organization of music, which can lead to a more refined and sophisticated musical style. Phrasing in particular can be better understood with a strong foundation in music theory.
4. Improved performance: Understanding music theory can also be helpful for musicians when it comes to interpreting and performing a piece of music. For example, understanding the form of a piece can help a musician to better understand how to structure their performance and make musical decisions.
5. Enhanced career opportunities: Some music-related careers, such as teaching or composing, may require a strong understanding of music theory. In these cases, learning music theory can be an important step towards achieving these goals.
6. Crossover applications: I’ve found that the analytic principles and techniques I learned and used in music theory are applicable to other fields. I use it in my writing, art, and even business. Music theory is about patterns and understanding relationships and those skills are transferable to many other areas.
Reasons musicians may not study music theory

Here are a few reasons why some musicians may choose not to learn music theory:
1. Limited time or resources: Learning music theory can be a time-consuming process, and some musicians may not have the time or resources to devote to it.
2. Intimidation or lack of interest: Some musicians may find the subject of music theory intimidating or may simply not be interested in it. In these cases, they may choose to focus on other aspects of music-making.
3. Preference for intuition: Some musicians may prefer to rely on their ears and intuition rather than formal theory when creating and performing music.
4. Different learning styles: Music theory can be taught in a variety of ways, and some musicians may find that certain approaches do not work for them. In these cases, they may choose not to pursue music theory.
It is important to note that these are just a few potential reasons why some musicians may choose not to learn music theory, and that each individual’s decision will be based on their own goals and preferences.

Some musicians will find that they are able to create and perform music to a high standard without any formal training in the subject.

Ultimately, the decision of whether or not to pursue the study of music theory should be based on the individual musician’s goals and preferences. While it can be of great benefit to some, others may find that a basic understanding is sufficient. There are also various approaches to the study of music theory, and what may be effective for one musician may not be as beneficial for another.

I have found a lot of value in my music theory training, but I have also seen where the study of music theory can get far away from the music. I view music theory as a tool I can choose to employ or not. The study of music theory can be an invaluable tool for musicians, but it is not a requirement for all.
December 21, 2022
What’s counterpoint in music? who what when where & why
During my undergraduate work, counterpoint happened to be one of my favorite topics in music theory (Who am I kidding? I liked them all!). I was a teacher’s assistant and graded many counterpoint exercises. What I saw was if students grasped the principles of counterpoint, they were more successful when we got to four-part writing, other composition techniques, and analysis.

Counterpoint is a horizontally layered approach to writing music. The music is based on a primary voice (line or melody). Other voices are added but are written with the intervallic relationship with the primary voice dictating what notes the other voices may use. The voices have independent melodic contours and rhythms.

There’s a lot that can be said about counterpoint, but here’s a quick round up of the main points.

Related articles
- What is a Cantus Firmus?
- How to write 1st species counterpoint.
Who created counterpoint?

No one person created counterpoint. As with most theoretical writings, the music comes first then the theory. There’s certainly a who’s who list of theorists and composers who used counterpoint ideas in their music and/or explored writing down the principles of counterpoint. Instead of just listing a bunch of names, I thought it might be more interesting to list the names and influential works only if I could find an English translation for sale. It may be – dare I say – fun to read these works.

Early Influential theorists who wrote about counterpoint
- Prosdocimus de Beldemandis – Contrapunctus: Counterpoint: found a copy on AbeBooks. The translator is Jan W. Herlinger.
- Gioseffo Zarlino – The Art of Counterpoint: found a version published by W.W. Norton on AbeBooks.
- Johannes Tinctoris – The Art of Counterpoint (Liber De Arte Contrapuncti): found a copy on AbeBooks
- Johann Joseph Fux – Gradus Ad Parnassum: found basically everywhere!
All the masters learned counterpoint!

Though these composers didn’t create counterpoint, they certainly treated it seriously and reaped the benefits of its development. Basically every composer you’ve heard of learned counterpoint in some manner. Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and many of the biggest names in classical music had extensive training in counterpoint. By the time these composers came around, counterpoint was pretty well established not only in music but theoretical and pedagogical writings.

Here is an example of where counterpoint went in the hands of Bach. He wrote this Fugue about 400 years after the first mention of contrapunctus in writings.

What is counterpoint?

At a fundamental level, counterpoint is simply considering the sonic relationships between two or more notes. Going a little deeper, counterpoint consists of two or more melodic lines that are interrelated to each other while rhythms and melodic contours are independent. Counterpoint is a sub-field of polyphony – polyphony being two or more independent musical lines. Counterpoint, whether Western classical, folk, or another tradition, is a more careful consideration of how each pitch relates vertically and horizontally. It is also the consideration that each line is a melody unto itself and fits in a woven texture with the whole. This is a slightly different angle than polyphony at large. Polyphony is more general in it’s definition of simply simultaneous voices.

What counterpoint isn’t

This could be a long list but let’s just go with, counterpoint is not monophony, homophony, or heterophony. Monophony is just a single line of music – think solo voice or violin. Homophony is where there is a melody that is supported by chords – think most pop songs. Heterophony is the simultaneous performance of the same melodic line by different instruments or voices. Counterpoint’s definition does not fit any of those.

When did counterpoint start?

Counterpoint, like other movements in the arts, is a continuum, not a one time event. Precursors to what is now considered counterpoint were in full swing toward the end of the Medieval period and many pieces were counterpoint in all but name. There are key texts that help us place when the concept of counterpoint began to become more concrete. The word contrapunctus is seen in a number of writing since the 1300s. But authorship among these earliest of writings is debated. By 1412 the Italian theorist Prosdocimus de Beldemandis wrote a Treatis of Counterpoint which clearly showed the development of the theory. At this point counterpoint was no longer only concerned with “note against note” but melodic line against melodic line.

The 15th century ushered in a golden age of polyphony (counterpoint), with Guillaume Dufay (1400–1474), Josquin des Prez (c. 1450–1521), and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525–1594) just to name a few. Johannes Tinctoris (c. 1435 – 1511) wrote Liber De Arte Contrapuncti which went into intervals, consonance and dissonance, and their usage. In this book he put down strict rules for introducing dissonances, limiting them to unstressed beats and syncopations – all of which contributed to the codification of counterpoint.

Though many theorists wrote about counterpoint during the 1600s, it wasn’t until Johann Joseph Fux wrote Gradus ad Parnassum in 1725 that counterpoint had it’s “official” text book. This became the definitive pedagogical work for counterpoint. Though there are plenty of counterpoint text books available today, 300 years later, Gradus ad Parnassum continues to provide a clear way for students to learn this method of composition.

Where did counterpoint start?

Primarily in France and Italy. Counterpoint grabbed hold at the end of the musical period called Ars Nova (late 1300s and 1400s) which is the commonly accepted transition between the music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance periods in Europe.

Why learn counterpoint

Counterpoint is an important piece of musical knowledge and understanding

In Alfred Mann’s translation of Gradus ad Parnassum, the monumental work by Johann Joseph Fux, he begins by says, “The Study of Counterpoint might be compared to the study of perspective. Bother we important developments in Renaissance art. Both reflect the rise of three-dimensional thought.” Counterpoint is the rise of three-dimensional thought. Before counterpoint was in common use or written down into a system, a medieval composer conceived of music as two-dimensional – strictly note against note. This means medieval composers viewed their craft note to note moment by moment. Whereas later polyphonic composers of the renaissance period began to judge an entire melody against another entire melody. The three dimensions of counterpoint are the vertical and horizontal relationships, and time (rhythm). More importantly, it’s the long-range horizontal composition of entire melodic lines while keeping in mind how they relate to the other lines in the piece of music at the scale of the entire piece.

After about 1300, the word counterpoint started to emerge. And by 1412 the music and theoretical writing on counterpoint we well underway. Part of what makes counterpoint so important for all types of musicians is how it codified an important shift in Western music. As art “discovered” perspective, music “discovered” a new awareness of the distance of time.

Counterpoint became a teaching tool with Fux’s influential book. It is a great way to learn about intervals, voice leading, consonance, dissonance, how to control multiple lines of music, melodic shaping, and more! Typically, a student of music must learn counterpoint and harmony. In order to understand how the underlying principles of harmony were determined and used, one must understand the counterpoint.

For composers, counterpoint teaches discipline and care all the while showing students that there are many “right” answers and when in doubt to use their ears.

For performers, understanding counterpoint helps bring out the subtilties in music from the renaissance on. Knowing more about the whys and how’s of interweaving musical lines can help performers make musical decisions that enhance the performance.
October 4, 2022

The rules of counterpoint: cantus firmus through 5th species

For a more detailed look at each species of counterpoint refer to the related articles below. This article is intended to be a reference and summary of the main “rules” of counterpoint.

In general there are five elements to be aware of and control when writing traditional counterpoint: 1) lines move predominately by stepwise motion, 2) horizontal and vertical intervals between the pitches, 3) conventional penultimate and ending measures, 4) rhythmic values, and 5) intervallic repetitions.

Inside each of those five elements are many pieces to consider. If you learn how to control those five counterpoint elements, you are on your way to writing solid counterpoint.

Rules for writing your own cantus firmus

Something to keep in mind when working on any aspect of counterpoint is that this is music that originated from singing and was codified with the voice in mind. This means that certain rules were born because counterpoint began as vocal music rather than instrumental.

Avoid exceeding the range of an octave.
Avoid outlining a tritone, minor 7th, or major 7th.
Avoid having to much motion going up or down.
1. A good rule of thumb is to not have more than four notes moving in the same direction.
Do not leap to a tritone, minor 7th, major 7th, or any interval greater than an octave.
Should have only one note that is the highest pitch (do not repeat the highest pitch). This is the climax.
Should move predominately by stepwise motion.
1. Avoid more than two leaps in a row.

1st Species Counterpoint Rules

1st species takes some principle rules of writing a cantus firmus and extends them. The primary difference is that you now have vertical intervals to worry about. In order to follow along you must know what intervals are considered consonant and which ones are dissonant.

Consonances and dissonances in 1st species counterpoint

Perfect Consonances	Imperfect Consonances	Dissonances
unison (P1)	minor 3rd (m3)	minor 2nd (m2)
perfect 5th (P5)	major 3rd (M3)	major 2nd (M2)
octave (P8)	minor 6th (m6)	perfect 4th (p4)
	major 6th (M6)	tritone (TT), augmented 4th (A4), diminished 5th (d5)
	minor 10th (m10)	minor 7th (m7)
	major 10th (M10)	major 7th (M7)
		minor 9th (m9)
		major 9th (M9)

The three horizontal motions

Contrary motion is where the voices move it opposite directions. This is the type of motion you should use the most.

Direct motion is where the voices move by the same interval in the same direction.

Oblique motion is where one voice stays the same and the other moves.

1st species rules

Only use consonant intervals but strive to use more imperfect intervals than perfect.
Strive to use more contrary motion than direct or oblique.
perfect intervals can move to another perfect by contrary or oblique (not direct)
perfect intervals can move to imperfect by any motion.
Imperfect intervals can move to perfect by contrary or oblique (not direct)
Imperfect intervals can move to imperfect by any motion.
Do not let the interval between the voices exceed a major 10th.
Try to limit voice crossings.
Do not leap by a major 6th or dissonant intervals.
Do not leap into an octave or unison even in contrary motion.
Do not leap by an interval greater than an octave.
Do not outline a tritone.
Avoid repetitions.

1st Species Counterpoint Example

2nd Species Counterpoint Rules

From now on, I’ll be referring to the intervals and motion that was introduced in 1st species. The biggest changes are the use of two notes in the counterpoint for every note in the cantus firmus and the inclusion of dissonant intervals.

The downbeat is always consonant.
The upbeat (the second half of the measure) may be consonant.
If the upbeat is dissonant, the notes before and after must be approached and left by stepwise motion. This will result in either neighbor tones or passing tones. See example below.

If the weak beat (upbeat) moves by skip, the interval must be consonant.
If the cantus firmus is in the lower voice, then the final two measures must have the following interval sequence: P5 — M6 — P8.
If the cantus firmus is in the upper voice, then the final two measures must have the following interval sequence: P5 — m3 — P1.
Do not write a series of measures where the downbeats are P5, P8, or P1.
Don’t separate the voices by more than a 10th.
Be careful with voice crossings (allowed but don’t do it too often).
Prefer contrary motion over direct or oblique.
No dissonant leaps.
No leaps larger than an octave.

2nd species counterpoint example

There are always little issues you can disagree about when it comes to evaluating an exercise, but I like to remind anyone working towards learning counterpoint that it is just an exercise. The goal is to learn. So, correct the big mistakes, but more importantly understand the deeper reasons the rules exist in the first place. Remember that the rules came after the music, not the other way around!

3rd Species Counterpoint Rules

The species of counterpoint is now four notes in the counterpoint against one note in the cantus firmus. Most of the same rules from the previous species of counterpoint should be observed. The full article is here: 3rd Species Counterpoint.

Start with a consonance.
If five quarter notes are going up or going down the following rules apply:
- The 1st note must be consonant.
- The 2nd note can be dissonant or consonant.
- The 3rd note must be consonant unless all the other beats in the 5-note series are consonant.
- The 4th note can be dissonant if the 5th note is consonant.
You can leap away from a dissonance if you then resolve it in the opposite direction by step. This is called “cambiata”.

Third species counterpoint cambiata example

The next to last measure:
- If the cantus firmus is in the lower part, then the 2nd to last interval must be a major 6th that then moves by contrary motion to the octave.
- If the cantus firmus is in the upper part, then the 2nd to last interval must be a minor 3rd that resolves to a unison (can also be a minor 10th to an octave).
It’s suggested to continue to use more contrary motion.
It’s suggested to try not to write “too many” notes going in the same direction. How many is too many? Fux wrote up to nine notes going in the same direction, but use your ear.

4th Species Counterpoint Rules

This species changes things up rhythmically by tying half notes over the bar line. For the full article go here: 4th Species Counterpoint.

The first measure of the counterpoint begins with a half rest.
The upbeat (2nd half of the measure) must be consonant.
The downbeat (1st half of the measure) can be consonant or dissonant.
Dissonant intervals are resolved by moving down by stepwise motion to a consonant interval.
When a ligature (tied note) is not possible, you can write a couple of half notes to get out of the situation.
Be careful to avoid repetitions.
The 2nd to last measure:
- If the cantus firmus is in the lower voice, you should have a 7th resolve to a 6th that then moves to the final interval of an octave.
- If the cantus firmus is in the upper voice, you should have a 2nd resolve to a 3rd that then moves to the final interval of a unison.

5th Species Counterpoint Rules

This species can also be called “florid counterpoint” because you are free to use a combination of any of the previous species. At this point you are getting a lot closer to actual composition. In this species Fux says, you are looking for melodic lines with liveliness of movement, and beauty and variety of form.

There are no specific rules to this counterpoint that are different than the rules already explained in the previous species. This is simply where you put them all together! Something to keep in mind though is that the counterpoint should always be viewed through the lens of a vocal melody – it should be singable.

5th species counterpoint from Fux. — From Johann Joseph Fux’s *Gradus ad Parnassum*

September 4, 2022

4th Species Counterpoint – the art of tension and release
You may not have known it but 4th species counterpoint is a clear articulation of that push and pull of tonal music. Western tonal music developed dissonance consonance relationships that helps give “direction” to the music. Typically, compositions utilize building up tension with dissonance which is then relieved by resolving to a consonance in very particular ways. 4th species counterpoint is a written out teaching of that very principle.

Where the previous species of counterpoint controlled intervals and motion, 4th species introduces suspension (though not technically suspensions as we would find in pieces with more than two voices). In a 4th species counterpoint exercise you will get two melodic lines and chains of “suspensions.” By itself, 4th species can be pretty restrictive but it is the foundational layer that some of the most powerful music is built upon. I’m not saying that 4th species counterpoint “invented” tension and release or dissonant and consonant movement, but it is a systematic way to understand that relationship on a note to note level. Furthermore, these principles can be used in a wide variety of ways and genres.

4th Species Counterpoint Rules
- Consonant intervals are minor 3rd, major 3rd, perfect 5th, minor 6th, major 6th, perfect 8th (octave), minor 10th, major 10th.
- Dissonant intervals are any interval not listed as a consonance.
- The upbeat must always be consonant.
- The downbeat can be consonant or dissonant.
- Dissonances are resolved by descending stepwise to a consonance.
- When a tied note (ligature) is not possible it is allowed to write plain half-notes to get out of the situation.
- Avoid repetitions.
Related articles
The resolution of dissonances

The way Johann Joseph Fux in his 1725 work, The Gradus ad Parnassum, describes how to view the dissonance in a way that we still hear these combinations of intervals.

“…The notes held over and, as it were, bound with fetters, are nothing but retardations of the notes following, and thereafter proceed as if brought from servitude into freedom.”

What a poetic way to think about the relationships between the notes.

Dissonances are easy to handle in this species because all dissonances resolve by descending stepwise to a consonance.

When the cantus firmus is in the lower voice, 2nds resolve to unisons, 4ths resolve to 3rds, 7ths resolve to 6ths, and 9ths resolve to octaves.

When the cantus firmus is in the upper voice, you can have a 2nd resolve to a 3rd, a 4th to a 5th, and a 9th to a 10th. Refrain from using the 7th to an octave.

The First Measure

To begin these exercises, place a half rest and then begin with a consonance.

Penultimate Measure in 4th Species

7th resolves to a 6th if CF is in the lower voice then up to the octave. If CF is in the upper voice one should conclude with a 2nd to 3rd then up to a unison.

Counterpoint Writing Tips

One method for writing 4th species is to write a modified 1st species exercise and then shift the notes back by a half-note. This won’t be exactly like a 1st species because you will use more similar and parallel motion as well as less variety of intervals, but it can help to think of composing a 4th species in this way.

For example here is an example from Fux. Here is the 4th species shifted to look like a 1st species. As you can see there is a preponderance of parallel 3rds that would be unacceptable in a 1st species exercise.

But when we shift the lower voice over to the right by a half note, it turns into an acceptable 4th species counterpoint.

Observe the difference in interval variety when the 1st species was shifted to create a 4th species. It went from 3rds, octave, and unison to octave, 10th, 3rds, 2nds, 6ths, P5, and unison.

When you’re in a bind

Take the opportunity to leap when you have the chance. Typically, you can do this when you have three consonances in a row because this means you don’t have to deal with resolving a dissonance down by step.

General shape of the counterpoint

4th species counterpoint will typically have a distinctive leap up and work downward over the next few measures, then leap up again. This is due to having to resolve dissonances down by step and by wanting to avoid repetitions.

Succession of fifths

Due to the syncopation, having perfect 5ths in a row is acceptable. The reasoning according to Fux is that the syncopation breaks up the parallel sound.

4th species from other sources

This is a short example from Alfred Mann’s, The Study of Fugue, which of course must address elements of beginning counterpoint. It is easy to see the us of the 7-6 and 4-3 (11-10) patterns.

Page 21

Here is another example that is in the context of a more intricate piece by Telemann. As you can see in the first two measures we get the “counterpoint” in the lower staff. The E is tied over the bar line and resolves stepwise down to the D-sharp. When you remove some of the decoration, you get the intervals of minor 3rd to major 2nd back to minor 3rd – just as we expect in a 4th species counterpoint exercise.

In the last two measures of the excerpt, the “counterpoint” is now in the top staff. The high B is tied over the bar line and then resolves down by step to an A-sharp. Once again, when you remove the decoration pitches in the lower staff, the remaining intervals are major 6th, minor 7th, and a minor 6th.

The idea of 4th species is a central element in all genres of music and is a fundamental piece to tonal music – namely the concept of tension and release.
September 2, 2022
I IV V Progression – A Musical Cliché Explained
I came into this article thinking I basically had all the knowledge ready to go. But I discovered something new about the I IV V chord progression that helped me understand why it’s such a powerful progression in tonal music.

In tonal music the I IV V chord progression is a sequence of chords based on the 1st, 4th, and 5th scales degrees. For example, in the key of C major the progression would be (I) C-major, (IV) F-major, and (V) G-major.

In this article I’ll go over the basics of the I IV V progression but I’ll also reveal an interesting insight into why this progression is so dominant in tonal music.

I IV V – Prerequisites

In order to follow the discussion it’s necessary to understand the following concepts:
- Key Signature
- Scale Degrees
- Triad
- Major and Minor Chords
- Inversions
- Roman Numerals
What is a musical key signature?

The key signature is what indicates how many sharps or flats are used in the piece of music. Key signatures can change throughout the piece. Also, music typically includes accidentals (notes outside the key signature). For this article I’ll be using C major for most of my examples. C major has no sharps and no flats.

What is a scale degree?

A scale degree is a numeric identifier for each pitch in a scale. In a diatonic scale, like C major, there’re seven scale degrees – one for each pitch.

What is a triad?

A triad is a combination of three pitches played at the same time. Chords are built from triads. Here are some examples of triads.

What are major and minor chords?

Major and minor chords are triads with a specific set of intervals. A major chord consists of a major 3rd (4 half-steps) from the bottom note and a minor 3rd (3 half-steps) up from that note. A minor chord consists of a minor 3rd (3 half-steps) up from the bottom note and a major 3rd (4 half-steps) up from that note.

Major and minor chords are triads because they have three pitches. The three pitches have names: the root, the 3rd, and the 5th.

What are inversions?

Inversions are how we label chords so we know which note is in the bass (the lowest note of the chord). In a triad there are 3 positions and 2 inversions. Inversions are determined by identifying the intervals up from the bass note when the notes are brought within an octave range. There is root position where the notes are stacked up in thirds. There’s 1st inversion where you get the intervals of a 6th and a 3rd. Lastly, there’s 2nd inversion where you get the intervals of a 6th and a 4th.

What are Roman numerals?

Roman numerals are a method of music analysis that highlights the harmonic function of chords typically within a tonal system. Each scale degree gets a corresponding Roman numeral. Each Roman number gets another name that is used to identify it. I have written more about Roman numeral analysis in this article: Music theory and math

This is where we get the I IV V notation from!

Three reasons why the I IV V progression is so dominant in tonal music

I’m sure there’re many reasons this progression has maintained such a hold on tonal music but the three I’ll cover are: bass movement, home away more away home, and strong establishment of the key.

I IV V bass movement

In the key of C major, when in root position, the I IV V I bass movement is C –> F –> G –> C. The intervals are C to F = P4th/P5th, F to G = M2nd, G to C = P4th/P5th. With this we get two strong bass movements of a P4th/P5th. These are strong motions because the interval of a Perfect 5th is infused in the tonal system stemming from the overtone series.

The second measure achieves nice upward stepwise motion leading back to the tonic (I).

Home away more away home

In tonal music, the “story” of the music is typically one of home – away – home. Or tonic – dominant – tonic. In tonal music there is a sense of return there’s a feeling of “progression.” Not all music moves in this manner – it’s not a given. In the I IV V progression we get an extra step added in between the I V progression. The IV is like a bridge between the tonic (I) and the dominant (V). One way that the IV acts like a bridge is by having a common tone with the tonic: CEG (I) and FAC (IV). Another common tone bridge can exist if you add a 7th to the V chord: GBDF (V7). Now you have a connection of common tones going from the I to the IV to the V7 and back to I. Then from the IV to V the IV chord can move by step-wise motion or a leap of a P4th/P5th.

Also, all three chords are major. That means you don’t get a “jarring” shift from major to minor. The common tones along with stepwise or P4th/P5th bass movement all contribute to this progression’s power. There are other chords that can yield similar results but you will have to make some sort of compromise. The I IV V progression stays close enough to tonic while exploring far enough away to give some variety. It’s comfortable.

Strong establishment of key

This one is the characteristic of the progression that I had never thought of. I was reading Structural Functions of Harmony by Arnold Schoenberg and he points out that this progression rules out other closely related keys that the piece of music could be in. When we first begin to hear a piece of music our ears are searching for patterns. If you are acclimated to tonal music, then you are unknowingly listening for very specific relationships. Let’s just take the four chord progression below. The first chord you hear is a C major chord. You don’t know what key the music is in at this point because you have only heard three pitches. The next chord, FAC (IV), gives you two more new pitches. And more importantly it gives you F natural. This F natural is important because it rules out the possibility of the music proceeding in the closely related key of G major. G major’s key signature has one sharp – an F sharp. The next chord is GBD which completes the tonal picture by providing two critical pitches. The addition of pitches B and D complete the C major scale if we combine all the notes from the I and IV.

Chord Pitches
C major C E G
F major F A C
G major G B D

With these three chords we have introduced all seven pitches of the key (C D E F G A B). The second way the V chord establishes the key is with the B natural. The B natural rules out the option of the piece continuing in F major. F major is closely related to C major. F major just has a B-flat in the key signature. Because we hear a B natural we know it’s not in F major.

By going through these three chords we get the sound of the tonic, get all the pitches of the key, and rule out the possibility of the music being in either of the closely related keys! This progression plants the listener firmly in the desired key. Other progressions can complete this task. For example: I ii V I or I ii vii I. But these progressions have changes in chord quality from major to minor, which is not quite as smooth as the I IV V.
August 21, 2022

Major and Minor Scales (there’re only 4 to know)

Some people might say there are 12 major scales (one for each pitch in the 12-note equal temperament system-c c# d d# e f f# g g# a a# b). And some people might say there are 12 natural minor scales, 12 harmonic minor scales, and 12 melodic minor scales, each built of one of the 12 pitches. I disagree.

I’m not saying you can’t build all those scales. But what has always bothered me is that there is no difference in terms of interval sequences between C major and B major. Or no difference between A# melodic minor and E melodic minor. The only differentiation between the major, natural minor, harmonic minor, and melodic minor scales is the order of intervals. Every major scale has the same exact order of intervals. So, writing music in the key of G major sounds just like music in the key of G# major.

The major scales

Major scales have an intervallic sequence of whole step, whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, whole step, half step. Written as number of half steps: 2212221

C D E F G A B C

Every major scale has this pattern whether you start on C or D#! Only people with perfect pitch will hear the difference and even then, what does it matter? The feel of the music is the same in any major key.

Key matters when you are considering writing music for voice or specific instruments. For voice, which major key you choose will determine the range of the melody putting it either in a comfortable or out of reach range. Same goes for each instrument. Some keys are much easier to play on certain instruments. For example, on the violin the key of D major is much more comfortable than the key of B major.

If you are writing music that uses a major key, I believe you should always choose the most comfortable key for your instrumentation. Because in the end no one is going to hear that it is in G# major vs C major.

The minor scales

There are three minor scales: natural, harmonic, and melodic. Each of these scales have different interval sequences, therefore making them actually sound different.

The natural minor scale has an interval sequence of whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, half step, whole step, whole step. Or written as number of half steps: 2122122

A B C D E F G A

The harmonic minor scale has an interval sequence of whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, half step, minor 3rd, half step. Written as number of half steps: 2122131

A B C D E F G# A

Finally, the melodic minor scales is whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, whole step, half step (going up) and whole step, whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, half step, whole step (going down). Written as number of half steps: 2122221 (going up) 2212212 (going down)

A B C D E F# G# A (going up)
A G F E D C B A (going down)

Here’s a chart comparing the interval sequences of the four scales.

Scale Name	Interval Sequence
Major	2212221
Natural Minor	2122122
Harmonic Minor	2122131
Melodic Minor	2122221 – 2212212

Church Modes and Intervals

Modes have different interval sequences which in turn gives each of them a slightly different feel. Here are their interval sequences added to the chart. The way you create each mode is to start with C major (no sharps and no flats) and simply start the scale on each pitch.

Ionian: C D E F G A B C
Dorian: D E F G A B C D
Phrygian: E F G A B C D E
Lydian: F G A B C D E F
Mixolydian: G A B C D E F G
Aeolian: A B C D E F G A
Locrian: B C D E F G A B

Scale Name	Interval Sequence
Major (Ionian)	2212221
Natural Minor (Aeolian)	2122122
Harmonic Minor	2122131
Melodic Minor	2122221 – 2212212
Dorian	2122212
Phrygian	1222122
Lydian	2221221
Mixolydian	2212212
Locrian	1221222

It doesn’t matter which pitch you start your scale on, it just matters what sequence of intervals you are using. Of course, there is absolutely no rule saying you must keep your music in one scale! Lots of music explores a major and a minor scale within one piece. But there is no limit to the number of scales you could combine to create your own music.

Diatonic Scales

All the scales I have highlighted in this article are diatonic, meaning they have seven pitches and consist of five whole steps and two half steps. There are many more scales that have fewer or more pitches in the scale. Also, the scales in this article only use half and whole steps – many scales use other intervals. Here is my article on 7 Music Scales Beyond Major & Minor You Should Know – Global Music Theory

The consequences of equal temperament

The reason the key of B major sounds like the key of E major is due to equal temperament. Equal temperament is where the half-step interval is always the same (equal) and there are twelve half-steps in each octave. This uniformity in half-steps is what makes the starting pitch of the scale unimportant. There are many other tuning systems, such as Just Tuning, that do create different sounding scales depending on the starting pitch.

Here is a great video showing a few different tunings. I really like the detail he goes into about the differences between each tuning.

These different tuning systems gave the various keys a variety of “sonic flavors” which is why many composers were so careful with what key they wrote it. Many of the classical period and earlier works are in keys that work well in meantone temperament and well temperament. On top of that, the composers knew and exploited the nuances of each key and scale.

Tuning is a keyboard problem

In many ways, the whole issue of complex tunings is more of a fretted and keyboard issue. Fretless instruments like the violin do not naturally play in equal temperament. In order for a violinist to play in equal temperament, they would likely need a keyboard instrument to tune to (though after years of practice and muscle memory, violinists can do it). The primary reason we have equal temperament is because of the dominance of keyboard instruments. Since equal half steps are not a natural consequence of the overtone series, it can be very difficult to intuitively hear and play equal half steps. If a solo violinist always practices a piece alone, then they are most likely tuning to pitches that resonant with the music and that particular violin. But then when they come to play with their accompanist, they will find they have to make micro adjustments to their intonation throughout the piece in order to be in tune with the piano. This is why string quartets and choirs’ sounds can be so powerful, they’re not tied to equal temperament.

Fretless instruments and voices are to a great extent not tied to any tuning. These instruments and voices can adjust by micro tones to fit the context of the music and their fellow musicians – a keyboard or guitar cannot. However, very attentive guitarists will tune slightly differently given the key of the music.

August 19, 2022

3rd Species Counterpoint – (audio ex) rules and steps
If you do not know about cantus firmus, 1st species counterpoint, or 2nd species counterpoint, check out the following articles first:
In 3rd species counterpoint the counterpoint moves in quarter note durations against the cantus firmus in whole notes.

Rules of 3rd Species Counterpoint
- If 5 quarter notes are ascending or descending the following must be observed:
  - The first note must be consonant
  - The second note may be dissonant
  - The third note must be consonant
  - The fourth note may be dissonant if the fifth is consonant
Consonant and dissonant beats

Here is an example of having the 1st and 3rd beats consonant and the 2nd and 4th can be either consonant or dissonant. Remember perfect 4th (perfect 11ths) are considered dissonant.

Here is an example where the 3rd beat is allowed to be dissonant as long as the other beats are consonant.

Another acceptable consonant dissonant movement is the cambiata or “exchanged note.” This is where the 2nd beat is dissonant and then you leap away to a consonant and resolve the leap in the opposite direction.

The next to last measure in 3rd Species Counterpoint

If the cantus firmus is in the lower part, then the second to last note must be an interval of a Major 6th that then moves by contrary motion to the octave.

If the cantus firmus is in the upper part, place a minor 3rd at the second to last note and resolve to a unison. Alternatively, you can use a minor 10th and resolve to the octave.

Using sharps and flats and examples

Sometimes it is necessary to use sharps and flats in order to avoid tritones (augmented 4th/diminished 5th). Here are some examples from Joseph Fux. Even in these examples there are issues that might be flagged as “less good” or “incorrect”. In my experience, writing counterpoint (or any composition) there is no “perfect” answer. You should try to learn the principles behind the theory or exercise but don’t be bound by them. Use your ear. And if something just sounds strange or breaks the rules, don’t fret. One of the beauties of music is that you can always write more.

From The Study of Counterpoint trans. Alfred Mann pg. 54

The two issues I flagged in the example above are “too many notes going in the same direction in a row” and “large repetitive leaps”. The first issue of too many notes going in the same direction also outlines a major 9th (d to e) which is dissonant. The second issue is the octave leap of c to c and back to c again. And then the leaps of a to d repeated. Typically, in counterpoint we try to avoid repeated patterns and sequences (at least for now). Is the above example “wrong”? No. There are countless ways this example could have been written, and in the end if it sounds good, it is good. Here is what this short counterpoint sounds like.

Here is an example of using flats and sharps in the same exercise.

From The Study of Counterpoint trans. Alfred Mann pg. 54

Here is what this example sounds like. I love the mixing of B and B-flat.

Lastly, here is an example where Fux accepts lots of leaps. Usually, counterpoint favors smooth voice leading – meaning steps are preferred to skips. But as you can see in the example below, there are many leaps and some are “unresolved” by stepping back in the opposite direction.

3 species counterpoint audio example #8

It’s easy to get wrapped up in all the rules of counterpoint, but examples like the one above shows that you can be lenient and to just enjoy writing rather than being so strict.
August 6, 2022
7 Music Scales Beyond Major & Minor You Should Know
As you know there are plenty of scales throughout the world, and I want to highlight a few here. Whether as a classical style composer or someone just interested in creating music, being exposed to more types of scales will broaden the music you create. In order to get the most out of this article, you will need to understand intervals.

The seven scales you should know are:
1. Whole-tone scale
2. Chromatic scale
3. Hemitonic – pentatonic scale
4. Anhemitonic – pentatonic scale
5. Hexatonic scales
6. Tetratonic scale
7. Octatonic scale
Of course, there are many more scales to explore – from microtone scales to the scales found in nature! But hopefully, this will be a nice look at scales you don’t typically encounter.

Here is an image of all the scales I talk about in this article:

I find improvising with these scales helps to unlock new ideas and sounds.

I’ve written a short book for composers that explores how music is organized and the roles it can play across the globe. The book is called Formative Forces in Sound. If you are interested, it’s available on Amazon here for $0.99 www.amazon.com/formativeforcesinsound

What is the whole-tone scale?

This is a simple scale to understand. It consists purely of whole tones, no half-steps. You can find many examples of composers using this scale. Since this scale consists of 6 notes, it’s actually under the Hexatonic scale category but I thought it could use its own example because it has been used in many pieces of Western classical music such as Debussy’s Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune.

The whole-tone scale is commonly used to create a “dreamy” sound.

There are only two versions of this scale, one starting on C and the other starting on D♭.

c – d – e – f# – g# – a# – c

d♭ – e♭ – f – g – a – b – d♭

Whole-tone scales sound less driven toward a goal because they lack a leading tone. Every interval is equal so composers either playing with the fact that the music does not demand to go anywhere, or they find other ways to create a “tonic” note.

A whole-tone scale can temper expectations and just let the music breath in a different way than a typical major or minor scale can.

I’m sure music from other musical traditions have used the whole-tone scale, but I’m ignorant to those that do. I’ll keep my ears out for some examples to place here.

Chromatic Scale

In the equal temperament tuning system, the chromatic scale consists of 12 pitches equally spaced by half-steps (semitones). Of course, not all tuning systems are tuned to be a series of 12 equal half-steps. Some traditions, such as Indian music, tune using just intonation (just intonation is a tuning system that uses simple ratios rather than the complex ratios required to cut an octave into 12 equal pieces). A chromatic scale in just intonation will not have equal half-steps but it will still contain 12 pitches.

Like a whole-tone scale, the chromatic scale has a difficult time establishing a “tonic” pitch because all intervals are the same (no leading tone). The chromatic scale in its entirety is rarely used, except in 12-tone music where it is exploited to the fullest degree. This is not to be confused with chromaticism which has been a feature of music since the beginning, it just may not have been called that. Chromaticism is when a composer introduces pitches that are outside the key. Since the voice can easily slip around pitches, human surely sang with “chromatic” inflections whether intentionally or not. To me, the difference between using the chromatic scale and chromaticism is that if a piece uses the chromatic scale, it actively uses all 12 pitches with no key center. Whereas chromaticism has a key center and notes are going in and out of the key. Highly chromatic music might use all twelve tones, but if it is still using the language of a key, then it is chromaticism not using the 12-tone scale.

For a fantastic example of early chromaticism, here is Carlo Gesualdo’s Sesto libro di madrigali. Just look at all the accidentals and lines moving by half-step. This is a great example of a composer not using triadic harmony but using counterpoint voice leading and their ear.

Hemitonic – pentatonic scale

Pentatonic scales are awesome! They seem to be an almost universal of human musical expression – they are found everywhere and at all times. According to Michael Spitzer (his book The Musical Human is very interesting) a bone flute dated around 40,000 BC was found and it has five finger holes to play a pentatonic scale! Here is Wulf Hein playing a reconstructed bone flute.

Pentatonic means there are five pitches that make up the scale within an octave. Pentatonic scales come in a variety of flavors so here is but one large group – hemitonic scales contain one or more half-step (semitone).

d – e♭ – g – a – b♭

Japanese pentatonic. (I hear a bit of OK Computer in this)

Of course, you can place the half step(s) anywhere you like.

d – f# – g – a – b♭

d – f# – g – a – b

Anhemitonic – pentatonic scale

Another flavor of pentatonic scales are those with no half-steps – anhemitonic. Here are a couple of examples:

c – d – e – g – a = major pentatonic

c – e♭ – f – g – b♭ = minor pentatonic

major pentatonic

minor pentatonic

These can be grouped into major and minor. These scales are commonly used in rock and blues music. A blues scale just needs the “blue” note – the g♭ in the example below.

c – e♭ – f – g♭ – g – b♭

As long as you know the intervals used in the scale, you can transpose these to any starting pitch.

Intervals of a minor blues scale: m3 – M2 – m2 – m2 – m3

Hexatonic Scales

These are six note scales. As with any scale it just means a collection of pitches with certain interval relationships. So, any six notes within an octave can be a hexatonic scale. With that said, it should be clear there are many hexatonic scales (including the whole-tone scale mentioned above). Below are just a few of the more common ones.

Blues scales

Blues scales can be viewed as a pentatonic scale with an added “blue” note. If you are a guitar player, check out this fantastic article with tons of examples https://www.jazzguitar.be/blog/blues-scales/

Here are the minor and major blues scales.

Many of the hexatonic scales can be made by placing mutually exclusive triads (triads that don’t share pitches in common) on top of each other. For example, two major triads would be:

c – e – g + d – f# – a = c – d – e – f# – g – a

You can do the same with minor triads:

c – e♭ – g + b – d – g♭ = c – d – e♭ – g♭ – g – b

Or augmented triads:

c – e – g# + d – f# – a# = c – d – e – f# – g# – a#

Or diminished triads:

c – e♭ – g♭ + d – f – a♭ = c – d – e♭ – f – g♭ – a♭

Tetratonic Scales

These scales only have four notes to the octave. As with the other scales there are many possible scales that can be built on just four notes. These scales are not as common in modern day music. Four-note scales were more commonly found in ancient humans, though not as widely spread as pentatonic scales. Michael Spitzer writes about the importance of tetrachords in how early musicians organized and built the seven note scales that came to dominate Western music. The ancient Greeks used the interval of the perfect fourth as a building block for their music. A tetrachord is filling in the gaps of a fourth. For example, the following tetrachord spans the interval of a perfect 4th (c to f):

c – d – e – f

The Greeks would then layer on the next tetrachord:

g – a – b – c

And that gives us the C major scale.

Spitzer goes on to express the importance of the interval of the 4th up until changing tastes preferred thirds.

Here is an example of a tetratonic scale:

c – e♭ – f – g – c

tetratonic scale

When playing around with these intervals, I inevitably end up with an “old” sound.

Octatonic scale: Alternating half-steps and whole-steps

This one is pretty self-explanatory, just pick a pitch and decide to begin with a half-step (semitone) or a whole-step (whole-tone) and keep alternating until you reach an octave. For example:

c – d♭ – e♭ – e – g♭ – g – a – b♭ – c

half-step whole-step octatonic scale

c – d – e♭ – f – g♭ – a♭ – a – b – c

These are members of the octatonic scale family because they have eight notes.

There are many more scales to explore and when you add in the variable of different tuning systems and microtones the number of possibilities explodes!
July 24, 2022
9 Bach Chord Progressions To Use In Your Music
J.S. Bach is one of the greatest composers of all time, so it stands to reason that you are on solid ground using his music for inspiration. Specifically, in this article, I want to show you how his chord progressions can help you write new and interesting music.

Many musicians get writers block, and it can be useful to have some prompts that will take you out of your comfort zone. Here are 9 prompts from Bach’s chorale music. To jump to each progression, click the links below.

Chord Progressions
1. BWV 26
2. BWV 262
3. BWV 104
4. BWV 121
5. BWV 274
6. BWV 43
7. BWV 330
8. BWV 245
9. BWV 307
I want this to be user friendly, so I’m not going to be doing a detailed analysis of each progression but rather simply giving the key and the chords. I’m including how to play each chord on guitar and piano. I’m also including a recording of playing these chords on piano so you can hear and get a sense of what they sound like.

The way I use this is to play around with these chords and improvise within the major and minor chord progressions. If I find a chord progression I like, I will record it so I can improvise over it.

When using these chord progressions, it’s useful to keep in mind that Bach wrote primarily using counterpoint (to learn more about counterpoint check out this article: What is Cantus Firmus?). This means his chord progressions sometimes veer off into interesting places – which is probably what you want anyway! He followed voice leading rather than “chord progressions” to write his music, meaning he took a “horizontal first” approach rather than vertical. Most pop and rock music are put together by finding a melody and a chord progression to support that melody. Counterpoint is a way to construct music in melodic layers. Either way is not better than the other, but both should be understood and part of your music writing tool set.

I’ve written a short book that explores how music is organized and the roles it can play across the globe. The book is called Formative Forces in Sound. If you are interested it is available on Amazon here for $0.99 www.amazon.com/formativeforcesinsound

Bach chord progressions

1 – Bach chord progression from BWV 26

Here are the chords as played on a guitar needed for this piece:

Bach BWV 26 Guitar Chords

Here is the chord progression laid out in phrases.
1. am – E/G# – am
2. am – G – C
3. C – am – D/F# – am – dm7 – E7 – A
4. A – A/C# – dm – B♭ – gm – A – G – D
5. G – G/B – C – am – dm/F – G – C
6. F – dm/A – E – am – B7 – E7 – A
I love this because it sets up the listener and kind of tricks them. The first phrase is a clear i-V-i progression in a minor which sets up the listener to for a piece in a minor. The next phrase changes and has a V-I cadence in C major (the relative major key to a minor). Just in these first two phrases, the listener is engaged, unsure where this music may go – is it a minor or C major?

Then the third phrase ends solidly in A major (the parallel major to a minor).

The fourth phrase flirts with dm and ends in D major (a closely related key to A major).

The fifth phrase ends back in C major (the relative major key).

Finally, the last phrase brings us back to A major, but we never return to a minor.

2 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 262

This piece is in the key of D major. Here are the progressions laid out phrase by phrase.
1. D – bm – D/F# – G – A – A7 – D
2. D – D – em – D/F# – em7 – A7 – D
3. A – A – D – f#m7 – bm7 – E7 – A
4. em – em – A7 – bm – bm – f#m – F#7 – B
5. D – D – G – A – bm7 – E7 – A
6. G – D – em – D/F# – em7 – A7 – D
I really like the way this one flows. If you look at just the last chords of each phrase you get:
1. D
2. D
3. A
4. B
5. A
6. D
I think of it as phrases 1 and 2 are the A section. Phrases 3, 4, and 5 are the B section and phrase 6 brings it back to the home key of D major. Phrase 4 might be the most fun because it takes us to the V/V in the key of A major. From a “B section” point of view, phrase 4 ends on a half cadence. From a global point of view phrases 3 and 5 also ending on half cadences, which I think helps with the overall flow of the music – it keeps some element of anticipation.

3 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 104

This piece is in A major. Here are the chord progressions laid out phrase by phrase.
1. A – A – D/F# – E – bm – A/C# – E – A
2. A – F# – bm – bm – E7/G# – A/C# – E7 – A
3. A – E – a#dim – bm – F#7 – em – F#7 – bm
4. E/G# – A – D/F# – E – D/F# – A – E#dim7 – f#m
5. f#m – bm/D – A/C# – bm – E7/D – A/C# – E – A
I really like the use of the diminished chords in this one. Phrases 3 and 4 are interesting because they don’t go to the relative minor right away. For more info on diminished chords check out this article: What are Diminished Chords?

4 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 121

This piece is in the key of e minor. Here are the chord progressions laid out phrase by phrase.
1. em – F# – bm/D – bm – F#7/A# – bm – F#7 – bm
2. B/D# – em – bm/F# – G – d#dim/F# – em – am – B – em
3. em – em/B – am/C – am – em – D/F# – G
4. G – em – d#dim/F# – E7/G# – F#7 – B – F#7 – B
5. em – D – G – G/B – D – em – B7 – C
6. G – B7/D# – em – C – F#7/A# – B7 – E
Remember these are supposed to be used as creative musical prompts, so listen to some of the chord combinations and if something works grab it. If there are chords in it that don’t appeal to you, feel free to throw them out!

5 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 274

This piece is in the key of g minor. Remember that the letter after the “/” is the note that is in the bass. This means the chord is in an inversion. If you are just beginning or just want to hear the chords, you can ignore this and just play the chord. For example, just play the gm chord with the normal G in the bass instead of the gm with the B♭ in the bass. It will sound pretty much the same.

Chords
1. gm/B♭ – gm – gm/B♭ – dm – gm/B♭ – f#dim/A – gm – f#dim7/C – D7 – gm
2. gm – gm/B♭ – B♭/D – B♭7/F – gm7/F – edim – F
3. F – F/A – A/C – cm/E♭ – D/F# – gm – am – D7 – gm
4. D – gm – gm/B♭ – dm – gm/B♭ – f#dim/A – gm – am/C – D7 – G
6 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 43

This piece is in G major. In this one I labeled a few suspension (suspended) chords. I have an entire article on suspension chords but briefly here is what the notation means.

Asus4 – “A” = the root of the chord. “sus4” = play the pitch that is the interval of a perfect 4th above the root. In this case a perfect fourth above A is D. So, the notes in this chord are A-D-E instead of A-C#-E. Typically in a sus4 chord, the suspended note in the suspension chord will resolve down to the 3rd in the normal major or minor chord.

Asus4 to A

BWV 43 chords
1. G – em – D – em7 – am7 – G/B – G – Asus4 – A – D
2. G – C – G – D – em – D – G
3. D – D – G#dim/B – am – am/C – E – am
4. E – E – E – am – am/C – am – B – B – em
5. D – G – G – C – G – D
6. G/B – C – D – C/E – G – Dsus4 – G
7 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 330

Key chords to highlight: E7sus4

E7sus4 Staff Notation

E7sus4 on Guitar

BWV 330 Chords
1. am – am/C – E – D/F# – E/G# – am – Esus4 – am – am E/G# – am – dm – E – am – dm/F – E
2. am – G – em7 – F – dm7 – C/E – G – C
3. G – em7 – E7/C – am/C – dm7/A – E7/G# – am – bdim/D – E7sus4 – A
8 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 245

Key chord to highlight: Asus2

Asus2

BWV 245 Chords
1. E – E – A – E m7 – C#7 – D#7/F# – E – B
2. B – F#/A# – D#/F# – E/G# – B – c#m/E – F# – B
3. E – c#m – g#m – Asus2 – g#m/B – A/C# – E – B
4. g#dim/B – am/C – C#7 – D – d#dim7 – E – B – E
9 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 307

As a reminder about the “7” notation using chord symbols like this:

“7” = a minor 7th interval above the root.

7th chord notation

BWV 307 Chords
1. B♭ – B♭ – B♭ – F7 – gm – cm – Fsus4 – B♭
2. B♭ – B♭ – E♭/G – F7/A – B♭ – cm7/E♭ – F7 – B♭
3. B♭ – B♭ – F7 – gm – F#/A – gm – B♭/D – F
4. D7/F# – gm – D – gm – B♭ – gm – cm/E♭ – D
5. gm – gm – E♭ – B♭/D – B♭ – cm7/E♭ – F7 – B♭
July 17, 2022