Global Music Theory

Tag: composition ideas

  • Exploring music improvisation from around the world

    Exploring music improvisation from around the world

    Improvisation is a vital element in many world music traditions and has played a significant role in the development of music across cultures for centuries. It’s a way for musicians to respond to the changing needs and moods of the audience and bring their own personal style and creativity to the music. In this article, we will explore the use of improvisation in various world music traditions and how it compares to the western concept of improvisation.

    Qawwali

    One notable example of improvisation in world music is the tradition of qawwali in South Asian music. Qawwali started as a devotional or sacred music form that originated in the Indian subcontinent and is particularly popular in Pakistan and India. It is performed by a group of musicians, with one lead vocalist and several backing vocalists and instrumentalists. Qawwali performances often include improvised sections where the musicians interact with each other and the audience, creating a dynamic and engaging musical experience. The use of improvisation in qawwali allows the musicians to respond to the energy and mood of the audience, creating a truly unique and memorable performance.

    Here is a performance by Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.

    For more information, here is a great article on the topic:

    https://asiasociety.org/qawwali-sufi-ritual-commercial-pop#:~:text=Qawwali%20is%20a%20form%20of,of%20words%20of%20these%20songs.

    Griot Music

    Improvisation is also an integral part of African music traditions, such as in the West African griot tradition. Griots are oral historians and musicians who play a vital role in preserving the history and culture of their communities through music. Improvisation is an essential part of the griot tradition, as it allows the musicians to respond to the changing needs and moods of the audience and create a unique musical experience. In the griot tradition, improvisation is used not only as a performance technique, but also as a way to add depth and complexity to pre-existing compositions. The use of improvisation in the griot tradition helps to keep the music fresh and relevant, and allows the musicians to bring their own creative flair and personal style to the music. Sometimes the Griots sought to convey very particular emotions around an event or historical story they are telling. Improvisation is a method the singer could use to communicate to the audience at hand. Audience participation is another feature of a Griot performance that connects the present with the stories of the past.

    Here is a fantastic video explaining the tremendous value Griots bring to the world.

    Arabic Classical Music

    In the Arab world, improvisation is an essential element of music, particularly in the tradition of Arabic classical music. Arabic classical music is characterized by its complex melodies and rhythms, and improvisation is a vital part of the musical process. Musicians often improvise during performances, using their technical skills and musical intuition to create new melodies and rhythms on the spot. Taqsim is a type of improvisation that usually takes place at the beginning of a piece of music. The performer will begin in the lower range of the Arabic maqam (a mode defining pitches and intervallic patterns) to establish the maqam for the audience. The performer is then free to improvise as long as they return to the original maqam.

    I love the sound of this example:

    Jazz

    Improvisation is also a key element in the music of jazz, a genre that originated in the African American community in the United States in the early 20th century. Jazz is known for its use of complex rhythms, harmonies, and melodies, and improvisation is a crucial part of the musical process. In a jazz performance, the musicians will often improvise solos over a predetermined chord progression, using their technical skills and musical intuition to create new melodies on the spot.

    Western Improvisation

    One significant difference between the western concept of improvisation and that found in many world music traditions is the role of structure. In western music, improvisation is often seen as a way to break free from the constraints of a predetermined structure and create something new and spontaneous. In contrast, many world music traditions view improvisation as a way to enrich and add depth to a pre-existing structure, rather than breaking free from it. This difference in perspective on the role of structure highlights the diversity of approaches to improvisation in different musical traditions.

    Improvisation and Composition

    Improvisation is not only a performance technique, but it can also be used as a composition technique in various musical traditions. In some cases, improvisation is used to create the initial musical ideas that are later developed and arranged into a finished composition. For example, in the jazz tradition, musicians often use improvisation to generate new melodies and harmonies that can be developed into fully composed pieces. In Indian classical music, improvisation is also used as a composition technique, with musicians using improvisations as the basis for new compositions or adding depth and complexity to pre-existing compositions. Many Western Classical composers use a blend of theory, abstract concepts, and improvisation to create their music.

    Improvisation is a vital element in many world music traditions and plays a significant role in the development of music across cultures. It is an essential part of the musical process, allowing musicians to respond to the changing needs and moods of the audience and create a unique musical experience. While there are some differences between the western concept of improvisation and that found in many world music traditions, both approaches value the creativity and spontaneity that improvisation brings to music. Whether used as a performance or composition technique, improvisation is an integral part of the musical process and helps to keep music fresh, relevant, and engaging.

  • What is voice leading in music? a quick overview

    What is voice leading in music? a quick overview

    I learned about voice leading from a very academic angle. It was introduced to me through counterpoint and then through four-part writing. I was never a singer, except for my first year of college where I had to be in the choir, and though voice leading pertains to all instruments, it’s very clear when singing. When singing part of a choir you see/feel where your melodic line fits and moves within the music – i.e., voice leading.

    Voice leading is the way that individual parts in a musical composition move, or “lead,” between different pitches and chords. It refers to the smooth and logical progression of individual voices within a piece of music, and is an important aspect of counterpoint, which is the art of combining melodies in a way that is harmonically interesting and pleasing to the ear.

    In a piece of music that has multiple voices or parts, voice leading helps to create coherence and continuity by ensuring that the individual lines flow smoothly and logically from one chord to the next. It can involve the use of various techniques, such as smooth movement by step (minor 2nd or major 2nds), leaps (anything larger than an interval of a 3rd), or scale degree, or the use of voice exchange, where two voices swap melodic material – like the alto taking over from the soprano line.

    Good voice leading can help create a sense of forward momentum and direction in a piece of music and can also contribute to its overall structural coherence. It’s an important aspect of composition and is often considered in conjunction with other factors such as melody, harmony, and form.

    Voice leading in Baroque, Classical, and Romantic music?

    Voice leading is an important aspect of music composition in many different musical styles and periods. In Baroque music, which flourished in Europe from the late 16th to the early 18th century, voice leading was often used to create intricate and complex counterpoint (checkout my articles on counterpoint), with multiple voices interacting and interweaving with one another in a highly structured manner.

    In classical music, which emerged in the late 18th century, voice leading continued to be an important factor in composition. Classical composers such as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven often used voice leading to create smooth and logical progressions between chords, and to ensure that the individual voices in a piece of music moved in a cohesive and coherent manner.

    In Romantic music, which emerged in the 19th century, voice leading played a somewhat different role. Romantic composers such as Wagner, Liszt, and Chopin often used voice leading to create more expressive and emotional effects, and to create a sense of drama and tension in their music. In Romantic music, voice leading was often used to heighten the emotional impact of a piece by creating more dissonant and expressive progressions between chords, or by using larger leaps and more chromatic movement in the individual voices.

    Overall, the role of voice leading in different musical styles and periods has varied somewhat, but it has remained an important factor in the creation of well-crafted and harmonically interesting music.

    Voice leading in contemporary pop music

    Voice leading is an important aspect of music composition in many different styles and genres, including contemporary pop music. In pop music, voice leading is often used to create smooth and logical progressions between chords, and to ensure that the individual voices in a piece of music move in a cohesive and coherent manner.

    In pop music, voice leading is often used in conjunction with other techniques such as chord progressions and melodies to create a specific emotional or stylistic effect. For example, a pop song might use voice leading to create a sense of tension or resolution, or to add depth and complexity to the harmonies.

    In contemporary pop music, voice leading is often used in combination with electronic instrumentation and production techniques, such as synthesizers and drum machines. These tools allow for a wide range of creative possibilities in terms of voicing and arranging the individual parts in a piece of music, and can be used to create intricate and expressive voice leading patterns.

    Voice leading is an important aspect of contemporary pop music and is used by songwriters and producers to create harmonically interesting and emotionally impactful music.

    Voice leading and its evolution from Gregorian chant to today

    Voice leading in music has evolved significantly over time, and the ways in which it has been used and understood have varied significantly between different musical styles and periods.

    One of the earliest forms of Western music that made use of voice leading was Gregorian chant, which flourished in the Western Church from the 9th to the 12th centuries. In Gregorian chant, voice leading was often used to create a sense of unity and coherence within a piece of music, with the individual voices moving in a smooth and logical manner between different pitches and chords. Voices during this period were limited, not by any rule but by what they found to be pleasing, to a small set of intervals – unison, perfect fourths, perfect fifths, and octaves.

    As Western music developed over the centuries, the ways in which voice leading was used and understood continued to evolve. By the time we reach the 21st century all bets are off when it comes to voice leading but in pop music there are overarching trends.

    In contemporary music, voice leading continues to be an important aspect of music composition and is used in a wide range of styles and genres, including pop, rock, electronic, and more. The ways in which it is used and understood have continued to evolve over time, and today, voice leading is a vital part of the musical language. Voice leading sensibilities have been shaped by at least a thousand years of composers paying attention to how polyphonic voices interact.

    Voice leading outside the Western music tradition

    Voice leading is a concept that is relevant to many different musical traditions, and is not limited to the Western musical tradition. In fact, voice leading has been an important aspect of music composition in many different cultures and musical styles around the world.

    In non-Western musical traditions, voice leading is often used to create specific musical effects and to achieve specific musical goals. For example, in traditional Indian music, voice leading is often used to create complex and intricate melodies, and to achieve specific emotional and expressive effects.

    In African music, voice leading is often used to create a sense of unity and coherence within a piece of music, and to create a sense of group identity and collective expression. In many African musical traditions, voice leading is closely tied to the use of call and response patterns, where one voice or instrument leads and the others respond.

    Two examples of well-known voice leading

    “Canon in D” by Johann Pachelbel

    Canon in D is a piece of music that is widely known for its excellent voice leading. The piece is a canon, which means that it is built on a repeating melody that is played by different voices at different times. In “Canon in D,” the main melody is played by the first violin, while the second violin, viola, and cello provide accompanying lines that follow and respond to the main melody.

    One of the things that makes the voice leading in “Canon in D” so effective is the way that the different voices move smoothly and logically between different chords. The main melody moves by step, while the accompanying voices move in a more flowing and legato style. This creates a sense of unity and coherence within the piece and helps to give it a sense of forward momentum and direction.

    “Moonlight Sonata” by Ludwig van Beethoven

    “Moonlight Sonata” by Ludwig van Beethoven is a piece of music that is known for its excellent voice leading. The first movement of the sonata, which is the most well-known part of the piece, is built around a series of arpeggios, or broken chords, that move smoothly and logically between different chords. Logical movement means the melody and the harmony move according to long established chord progressions and utilize intervals suited to the tastes of the day.

    One of the things that makes the voice leading in “Moonlight Sonata” so effective is the way that the different voices move smoothly and logically between different chords. The main melody is played by the right hand, and moves in a flowing and legato style, while the left hand plays a series of arpeggios that provide a harmonic foundation for the piece. This creates a sense of unity and coherence within the piece and adds to its overall structure and flow.

  • What’s counterpoint in music? who what when where & why

    During my undergraduate work, counterpoint happened to be one of my favorite topics in music theory (Who am I kidding? I liked them all!). I was a teacher’s assistant and graded many counterpoint exercises. What I saw was if students grasped the principles of counterpoint, they were more successful when we got to four-part writing, other composition techniques, and analysis.

    Counterpoint is a horizontally layered approach to writing music. The music is based on a primary voice (line or melody). Other voices are added but are written with the intervallic relationship with the primary voice dictating what notes the other voices may use. The voices have independent melodic contours and rhythms.

    There’s a lot that can be said about counterpoint, but here’s a quick round up of the main points.

    Related articles

    Who created counterpoint?

    No one person created counterpoint. As with most theoretical writings, the music comes first then the theory. There’s certainly a who’s who list of theorists and composers who used counterpoint ideas in their music and/or explored writing down the principles of counterpoint. Instead of just listing a bunch of names, I thought it might be more interesting to list the names and influential works only if I could find an English translation for sale. It may be – dare I say – fun to read these works.

    Early Influential theorists who wrote about counterpoint

    • Prosdocimus de Beldemandis – Contrapunctus: Counterpoint: found a copy on AbeBooks. The translator is Jan W. Herlinger.
    • Gioseffo Zarlino – The Art of Counterpoint: found a version published by W.W. Norton on AbeBooks.
    • Johannes Tinctoris – The Art of Counterpoint (Liber De Arte Contrapuncti): found a copy on AbeBooks
    • Johann Joseph Fux – Gradus Ad Parnassum: found basically everywhere!

    All the masters learned counterpoint!

    Though these composers didn’t create counterpoint, they certainly treated it seriously and reaped the benefits of its development. Basically every composer you’ve heard of learned counterpoint in some manner. Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and many of the biggest names in classical music had extensive training in counterpoint. By the time these composers came around, counterpoint was pretty well established not only in music but theoretical and pedagogical writings.

    Here is an example of where counterpoint went in the hands of Bach. He wrote this Fugue about 400 years after the first mention of contrapunctus in writings.

    What is counterpoint?

    At a fundamental level, counterpoint is simply considering the sonic relationships between two or more notes. Going a little deeper, counterpoint consists of two or more melodic lines that are interrelated to each other while rhythms and melodic contours are independent. Counterpoint is a sub-field of polyphony – polyphony being two or more independent musical lines. Counterpoint, whether Western classical, folk, or another tradition, is a more careful consideration of how each pitch relates vertically and horizontally. It is also the consideration that each line is a melody unto itself and fits in a woven texture with the whole. This is a slightly different angle than polyphony at large. Polyphony is more general in it’s definition of simply simultaneous voices.

    What counterpoint isn’t

    This could be a long list but let’s just go with, counterpoint is not monophony, homophony, or heterophony. Monophony is just a single line of music – think solo voice or violin. Homophony is where there is a melody that is supported by chords – think most pop songs. Heterophony is the simultaneous performance of the same melodic line by different instruments or voices. Counterpoint’s definition does not fit any of those.

    When did counterpoint start?

    Counterpoint, like other movements in the arts, is a continuum, not a one time event. Precursors to what is now considered counterpoint were in full swing toward the end of the Medieval period and many pieces were counterpoint in all but name. There are key texts that help us place when the concept of counterpoint began to become more concrete. The word contrapunctus is seen in a number of writing since the 1300s. But authorship among these earliest of writings is debated. By 1412 the Italian theorist Prosdocimus de Beldemandis wrote a Treatis of Counterpoint which clearly showed the development of the theory. At this point counterpoint was no longer only concerned with “note against note” but melodic line against melodic line.

    The 15th century ushered in a golden age of polyphony (counterpoint), with Guillaume Dufay (1400–1474), Josquin des Prez (c. 1450–1521), and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525–1594) just to name a few. Johannes Tinctoris (c. 1435 – 1511) wrote Liber De Arte Contrapuncti which went into intervals, consonance and dissonance, and their usage. In this book he put down strict rules for introducing dissonances, limiting them to unstressed beats and syncopations – all of which contributed to the codification of counterpoint.

    Though many theorists wrote about counterpoint during the 1600s, it wasn’t until Johann Joseph Fux wrote Gradus ad Parnassum in 1725 that counterpoint had it’s “official” text book. This became the definitive pedagogical work for counterpoint. Though there are plenty of counterpoint text books available today, 300 years later, Gradus ad Parnassum continues to provide a clear way for students to learn this method of composition.

    Where did counterpoint start?

    Primarily in France and Italy. Counterpoint grabbed hold at the end of the musical period called Ars Nova (late 1300s and 1400s) which is the commonly accepted transition between the music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance periods in Europe.

    Why learn counterpoint

    Counterpoint is an important piece of musical knowledge and understanding

    In Alfred Mann’s translation of Gradus ad Parnassum, the monumental work by Johann Joseph Fux, he begins by says, “The Study of Counterpoint might be compared to the study of perspective. Bother we important developments in Renaissance art. Both reflect the rise of three-dimensional thought.” Counterpoint is the rise of three-dimensional thought. Before counterpoint was in common use or written down into a system, a medieval composer conceived of music as two-dimensional – strictly note against note. This means medieval composers viewed their craft note to note moment by moment. Whereas later polyphonic composers of the renaissance period began to judge an entire melody against another entire melody. The three dimensions of counterpoint are the vertical and horizontal relationships, and time (rhythm). More importantly, it’s the long-range horizontal composition of entire melodic lines while keeping in mind how they relate to the other lines in the piece of music at the scale of the entire piece.

    After about 1300, the word counterpoint started to emerge. And by 1412 the music and theoretical writing on counterpoint we well underway. Part of what makes counterpoint so important for all types of musicians is how it codified an important shift in Western music. As art “discovered” perspective, music “discovered” a new awareness of the distance of time.

    Counterpoint became a teaching tool with Fux’s influential book. It is a great way to learn about intervals, voice leading, consonance, dissonance, how to control multiple lines of music, melodic shaping, and more! Typically, a student of music must learn counterpoint and harmony. In order to understand how the underlying principles of harmony were determined and used, one must understand the counterpoint.

    For composers, counterpoint teaches discipline and care all the while showing students that there are many “right” answers and when in doubt to use their ears.

    For performers, understanding counterpoint helps bring out the subtilties in music from the renaissance on. Knowing more about the whys and how’s of interweaving musical lines can help performers make musical decisions that enhance the performance.

  • Writing music analysis for non-musicians & music majors

    Whether you know music or not, you may be asked to write an essay/analysis on a piece of music. If you’re a music major or thinking about studying music in college, get used to it! This task can feel a little overwhelming, especially if it is your first time writing about music. This article is tuned for people who have very little music knowledge on up to people who have some formal music theory courses under their belts. I think the tips, suggestions, and resources I provide are useful to anyone who is tasked with this kind of writing.

    Your teacher or professor gave you some direction as to what they are looking for in your work, so I’ll be addressing the topic more generally and offering my own ideas. Always refer to your specific assigned requirements.

    What should music analysis include?

    Before we get to the step-by-step, here’s what I think most music analysis essays should include:

    • Background of the music.
      • Context
      • Significant performances
    • Background of the composer(s).
    • Musical analysis
      • Timbre
      • Form
      • Harmony
      • Melody
      • Orchestration
      • Composition techniques
    • Your own ideas and conclusions

    So, how do you start analyzing music? I lay out some step to get you started below.

    Step 1: Get to know the music

    Before writing you should listen to the music many times. Each time you listen, try listening for different things. I suggest listening at least five times in five different ways.

    1. Listen then write what the music made you feel or imagine. Did it take you on a ride? Did it make you think of your childhood? Jot down a few notes. Then try to articulate why it had that effect on you. Was it the melody? Was there a rhythm or specific instrument that pulled you on a journey?
    2. Listen for instrumentation. What instruments do you hear? Are they playing all the time? What combinations of instruments did you hear? Is there any significance in the instrumentation that was chosen? Are these traditional instruments or perhaps all electronic?
    3. Listen for dynamics. You can use a line on a page to indicate the dynamic shape of the music. Did it start out quiet and stay quiet for the entire piece? Or did it go up and down?
    4. Listen for rhythm. What kind of rhythms did you hear? Were they steady throughout the piece? Did the rhythm become more complex in some places? Polyrhythms?
    5. Listen for meter and tempo. Were you able to identify the meter? Did the music speed up or slow down? If yes, where in the music?

    Once you have listened through five times with different ears on, I like to sketch what I think the music looks like visually. I use colors, shapes, figures, words, anything to attempt to capture the music on one sheet of paper.

    Finally, to get the know the music, you must get the score or written version of the music. This will help you see things in the music you may not have heard. It will also be essential if you’re going to be doing detailed music analysis (see steps 5-7). If you have a good ear, you can make your own transcription of the piece.

    Step 2: Get to know the composer

    Whether you’re writing about Adele or Bartok, you need to know some background information about the composer. Some key things to know are:

    • Full name
    • Date of birth
    • Date of death (if applicable)
    • About their musical background/career
    • Their other works
    • Musical “trademarks” they have
    • Where they live(d)

    Having this knowledge before writing will help you add colorful details to your writing. Rather than simply listing these elements as facts, you’ll be able to sprinkle these facts into your paragraphs breathing a little more life into them.

    Depending on the scope of the assignment, I wouldn’t recommend doing a deep dive into the composer but rather grab info from a few sources outside of Wikipedia.

    • Interviews on youtube can be a great place to grab quotes and get to know more about the composer in their own words.
    • Documentaries on youtube are great places to get a fast overview of the composer.
    • Composer websites is a curated experience that the composer wanted you to experience.
    • Fan websites
    • Books about the composer or by the composer (if you have the time to read an entire book about the composer, this is where you will learn the most).

    Step 3: Put the music in context

    Nothing exists in a bubble, so figure out where this music fits in. Here are three parameters you may explore.

    • Time era – When were they writing? What was the time like? Are we talking horses or Teslas? How does the time in which the composer wrote the music affect the music? Was the composer part of a particular music or art movement?
    • Geography – Where in the world did the composer live and where did they write the music in question? Was it in the French countryside? Or an island off of Australia? Austin, Texas? Does the geography influence the music and in what ways?
    • Within their works, when was this piece written?
      • Listen to the first piece of music this composer released (or the earliest one you can find), how is it similar or different?
      • Listen to the last piece of music released by this composer, how is it similar or different?
      • Was the music written during a particular phase or episode in the composer’s life? A bad breakup? The death of a child? Just won prestigious award? Was the composer overtly trying to say something?

    With this knowledge, you’ll be able to add depth to your analysis.

    Step 5: The Music’s Structure

    Every type/genre of music has its own musical structures. Here are a few types of structures your piece may be using:

    • Strophic – a specialized binary form where all verses are sung to the same music. You might see a song labeled with “A section and B section” or “verse and chorus”.
    • Ternary – a three-part form typically ABA.
    • Theme and variations
    • Through composed – the music does not repeat sections (Bohemian Rhapsody uses this form).
    • Sonata – be careful with this one, there are many variations.
    • Chance

    In tonal music (most music form the West) we have many cues to let us know the structure of the music. If there are lyrics, then there may be lyrical patterns that inform the structure of the music. Typically, it’s a combination of melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic cues that let the listener know where the end of a section is. Here is a quick example from Adele’s Hello that exemplifies three typical signs the phrase has ended.

    1. The melody moves downward and finishes on the tonic.
    2. The melodic rhythm ends on a long note.
    3. The harmony ends on the tonic.
    Example of phrase ending for music analysis

    The key to analyzing musical structure is to find the major sections of the music and determine how the composer fit these sections together – how are the various sections related? There is a lot that can go into this part of the analysis, but at the very least you should know the basic structure of the piece.

    For an in depth look at form and structure here is a book by Leon Stein, Anthology of Musical Forms — Structure & Style: The Study and Analysis of Musical Forms

    Step 6: The notes

    After the structure is understood, getting a handle on the melody, harmony, articulation, and dynamics is the next step. Once again, this can go as deep or shallow as you like. I’ll go over some of the basic elements to highlight in each area.

    Melody

    You will want to do some basic phrasal analysis, which entails understanding the smallest units of the melody that combined together to create the full melody. You are looking for how long the phrases are. How do they relate to each other? Are the phrases transposed, inverted, retrograded, etc…? But remember to keep in mind why it matters in the first place to understand this. I look at analysis as the practice of figuring out what “works” in music. What makes music communicate so powerfully? It’s easy to get lost in the minutia of the music and then not say anything important. How are the melodic phrases and structures related and how and why do you think this contributed to the music? Here is a brief example of how I’d start a melodic analysis. This is from MINUET No 1, in G Major by Mozart. This example is by no means exhaustive of how deep you can go analyzing melody.

    • The pink dashed box shows the prime melodic unit – two eighth notes descending to a quarter note all slurred together.
    • There are two short phrases that make up the red “phrase #1”. These two phrases are a descending sequence.
    • The blue phrase #2 uses the prime melodic unit but shortens it by using it back to back.
    • Phrase #2 in measure 8 ends on the dominant five chord – a half cadence.
    • Phrase #1b begins with the prime melodic idea just transposed down a 6th from measure 1.
    • Phrase #2b begins like phrase #2a but transposed down by a perfect 5th.
    • The green arrows indicate a change in melodic direction at the same point in the phrase.
    • Phrase #2b ends on a tonic – a perfect cadence. This type of cadence completes the section before it moves onto the a B section.
    Brief melodic analysis of Mozart

    Harmony

    If you’re a music student, you should probably go ahead and do a full roman numeral analysis. In some music, harmony will reveal many structures and patterns that hold the piece together. But be aware that many types of music place little to no importance on harmony. For example, one time I was analyzing a piece of traditional Thai music and very quickly found that there were only two harmonies used throughout the entire piece. It just went back and forth between a I (tonic) and a V (dominant). In a way the Roman numerals did their job by showing the harmony was not an element that the composer was used to hold the piece together. In most tonal music, the harmony is very important, but be careful to point out areas of harmonic interest rather than just rattle off the chords. Here are a few things to look for in harmony:

    • harmonic rhythm
    • cadences
    • repetitions in progressions and how the repetitions are varied
    • sequences
    • modulations
    • key changes
    • how expectations may have been played with (did the composer end on a surprising chord? and why?)

    articulation

    It can be useful to pay attention to some of the less structural elements in the music, like articulation. Articulation is one of those aspects of the music that is riding on the surface playing a significant role in the experience of the music.

    • legato: note are performed smooth and connected
    • staccato: notes are shorter than their written rhythmic value
    • tenuto: hold the note for the entire rhythmic value
    • marcato: louder and more forceful
    • accent: play the note with a little bite at the beginning of the note

    dynamics

    Dynamics are an important way for the composer to communicate. The very quiet sections can get an audience on the edge of their seats just as much as a loud section. Here are some basic dynamics volume terms:

    • fortissimo = very loud
    • forte = loud
    • mezzo forte = kind of loud
    • mezzo piano = kind of soft
    • piano = quiet
    • pianissimo = very quiet

    Here are some terms to describe changing dynamics:

    • crescendo = slowly get louder
    • decrescendo = slowly get quieter
    • diminuendo = slowly get quieter
    • subito piano = suddenly perform at the piano volume level
    • sforzando = suddenly loud

    Step 7: Compositional techniques

    Whether it’s Bon Iver or Bach, composers use compositional techniques to express themselves through the music. Every genre, composer, time period, geographic location, has their own unique set of established compositional techniques. I’m providing just the smallest sample of a few common techniques, but there are way to many to cover here.

    • chance: a set of rules is created and the composer plays a game to generate musical ideas and content. For example, I have some dice. Every time I roll a “1” I write the tonic of my key. I roll again to determine the rhythmic value. And I roll again to determine the articulation. And this can go on and on. If you did this, then you’d be able to generate a piece by the roll of the dice – chance.
    • repetition: self explanatory, just repeat a section.
    • sequence: take a melody or piece of the music and repeat it but alter it by transposing it up or down. Usually, do this three or more times.
    • pedal tones and bell tones: a pedal tone is a low pitch that is repeated over and over while the other parts change. A bell tone is a high pitch that is repeated over and over while the other parts change.
    • textures: think of complex vs simple.
    • counterpoint: layered melodic lines that follow carefully thought out rules of voice leading.
    • range: low vs high and everything in between.

    Step 8: Outline the essay

    Now that you know the music, the composer, the context, and the specific musical elements of the piece, it’s time to start outlining what you’re going to say about this music. One common method for presenting music is to start wide and zoom in with every paragraph. Think of it like an opening shot of a movie. The camera is pulled out (an establishing shot) to give the viewer context. So maybe imagine a setup with something as big as a planet, a continent, country, or city. Then the camera moves in to a neighborhood or high rise, or field. Then we get in closer to the home where we find our protagonist. We can do the same thing throughout the musical essay. Here is an example outline I did for the essay I wrote on Alfred Schnittke – Concerto Grosso no. 1.

    Five-paragraph essay outline

    Introduction – zoomed out look at the context of the composer, time, location, performance, etc

    Establish polystylism the compositional technique as my “protagonist.” Start zoomed out and discuss what polystylism is and other examples of this technique in use. Introduce Schnittke and his personal context. Get down to the piece and list a few of the styles that will be encountered in the music. Finally, deliver the thesis of the essay (the problem of the story), an examination of how to successfully deploy polystylism through consonance and dissonance.

    Body paragraph #1- looking at polystylism across the entire piece and form

    Discuss how many time styles are changed. Maybe present a chart showing the combinations of styles. Where’s the climax of the piece and what happens there?

    Body paragraph #2 – zoom in a bit more and look at an entire section of a stylistic change

    Give examples from a few different sections that show the stylistic writing of the various styles. For example, during a baroque section, show the counterpoint involved. Show the extended piano technique in the “contemporary” sections.

    Body paragraph #3 – zoom in and look at the notes, articulations, orchestration, voice leading of the moment of change

    Discuss what is happening in the music at one of the shifts from one style to another. What orchestration, textures, dynamics, and harmonic language is being used?

    Conclusion – draw conclusions and say something interesting

    Discuss the specific techniques Schnittke employed to transition between styles. What other contextual elements supported this music? If a composer wanted to use this as a case study, how would you distill down the polystylistic technique of Schnittke?

  • I IV V Progression Explained with Examples

    I came into this article thinking I basically had all the knowledge ready to go. But I discovered something new about the I IV V chord progression that helped me understand why it’s such a powerful progression in tonal music.

    In tonal music the I IV V chord progression is a sequence of chords based on the 1st, 4th, and 5th scales degrees. For example, in the key of C major the progression would be (I) C-major, (IV) F-major, and (V) G-major.

    In this article I’ll go over the basics of the I IV V progression but I’ll also reveal an interesting insight into why this progression is so dominant in tonal music.

    I IV V – Prerequisites

    In order to follow the discussion it’s necessary to understand the following concepts:

    What is a musical key signature?

    The key signature is what indicates how many sharps or flats are used in the piece of music. Key signatures can change throughout the piece. Also, music typically includes accidentals (notes outside the key signature). For this article I’ll be using C major for most of my examples. C major has no sharps and no flats.

    What is a scale degree?

    A scale degree is a numeric identifier for each pitch in a scale. In a diatonic scale, like C major, there’re seven scale degrees – one for each pitch.

    What is a triad?

    A triad is a combination of three pitches played at the same time. Chords are built from triads. Here are some examples of triads.

    What are major and minor chords?

    Major and minor chords are triads with a specific set of intervals. A major chord consists of a major 3rd (4 half-steps) from the bottom note and a minor 3rd (3 half-steps) up from that note. A minor chord consists of a minor 3rd (3 half-steps) up from the bottom note and a major 3rd (4 half-steps) up from that note.

    Major and minor chords are triads because they have three pitches. The three pitches have names: the root, the 3rd, and the 5th.

    What are inversions?

    Inversions are how we label chords so we know which note is in the bass (the lowest note of the chord). In a triad there are 3 positions and 2 inversions. Inversions are determined by identifying the intervals up from the bass note when the notes are brought within an octave range. There is root position where the notes are stacked up in thirds. There’s 1st inversion where you get the intervals of a 6th and a 3rd. Lastly, there’s 2nd inversion where you get the intervals of a 6th and a 4th.

    What are Roman numerals?

    Roman numerals are a method of music analysis that highlights the harmonic function of chords typically within a tonal system. Each scale degree gets a corresponding Roman numeral. Each Roman number gets another name that is used to identify it. I have written more about Roman numeral analysis in this article: Music theory and math

    This is where we get the I IV V notation from!

    I-IV-V Chords in Every Major Key

    So now that we have all of that covered, here’s a quick reference chart for the I, IV, and V chords in every major key.

    Major keyI chordIV chordV chord
    C majorCFG
    G majorGCD
    D majorDGA
    A majorADE
    E majorEAB
    B majorBEF#
    F# majorF#BC#
    C# majorC#F#G#
    F majorFBbC
    Bb majorBbEbF
    Eb majorEbAbBb
    Ab majorAbDbEb
    Db majorDbGbAb
    Gb majorGbCbDb
    Cb majorCbFbGb

    Three reasons why the I IV V progression is so dominant in tonal music

    I’m sure there’re many reasons this progression has maintained such a hold on tonal music but the three I’ll cover are: bass movement, home away more away home, and strong establishment of the key.

    I IV V bass movement

    In the key of C major, when in root position, the I IV V I bass movement is C –> F –> G –> C. The intervals are C to F = P4th/P5th, F to G = M2nd, G to C = P4th/P5th. With this we get two strong bass movements of a P4th/P5th. These are strong motions because the interval of a Perfect 5th is infused in the tonal system stemming from the overtone series.

    The second measure achieves nice upward stepwise motion leading back to the tonic (I).

    Home away more away home

    In tonal music, the “story” of the music is typically one of home – away – home. Or tonic – dominant – tonic. In tonal music there is a sense of return there’s a feeling of “progression.” Not all music moves in this manner – it’s not a given. In the I IV V progression we get an extra step added in between the I V progression. The IV is like a bridge between the tonic (I) and the dominant (V). One way that the IV acts like a bridge is by having a common tone with the tonic: CEG (I) and FAC (IV). Another common tone bridge can exist if you add a 7th to the V chord: GBDF (V7). Now you have a connection of common tones going from the I to the IV to the V7 and back to I. Then from the IV to V the IV chord can move by step-wise motion or a leap of a P4th/P5th.

    Also, all three chords are major. That means you don’t get a “jarring” shift from major to minor. The common tones along with stepwise or P4th/P5th bass movement all contribute to this progression’s power. There are other chords that can yield similar results but you will have to make some sort of compromise. The I IV V progression stays close enough to tonic while exploring far enough away to give some variety. It’s comfortable.

    Strong establishment of key

    This one is the characteristic of the progression that I had never thought of. I was reading Structural Functions of Harmony by Arnold Schoenberg and he points out that this progression rules out other closely related keys that the piece of music could be in. When we first begin to hear a piece of music our ears are searching for patterns. If you are acclimated to tonal music, then you are unknowingly listening for very specific relationships. Let’s just take the four chord progression below. The first chord you hear is a C major chord. You don’t know what key the music is in at this point because you have only heard three pitches. The next chord, FAC (IV), gives you two more new pitches. And more importantly it gives you F natural. This F natural is important because it rules out the possibility of the music proceeding in the closely related key of G major. G major’s key signature has one sharp – an F sharp. The next chord is GBD which completes the tonal picture by providing two critical pitches. The addition of pitches B and D complete the C major scale if we combine all the notes from the I and IV.

    ChordPitches
    C majorC E G
    F majorF A C
    G majorG B D

    With these three chords we have introduced all seven pitches of the key (C D E F G A B). The second way the V chord establishes the key is with the B natural. The B natural rules out the option of the piece continuing in F major. F major is closely related to C major. F major just has a B-flat in the key signature. Because we hear a B natural we know it’s not in F major.

    By going through these three chords we get the sound of the tonic, get all the pitches of the key, and rule out the possibility of the music being in either of the closely related keys! This progression plants the listener firmly in the desired key. Other progressions can complete this task. For example: I ii V I or I ii vii I. But these progressions have changes in chord quality from major to minor, which is not quite as smooth as the I IV V.

  • Timbre’s Deep Evolutionary Power

    There are many great articles and videos discussing the technical side of timbre (pronounced “tam” + “bur”), so I wanted to address timbre from a different angle. I was reading “The Musical Human” by Michael Spitzer and found a section that brought up the issue of timbre to be interesting.

    Spitzer pointed out that a change in timbre completely changes the meaning of a word. Nothing real novel except that he was referencing apes, not humans. He argues that timbre above melody, grammar, or syntax is what drives the meaning in communication. What I take from that is, timbre is the prime mover of meaning and emotions in music.

    I’ve written a short book for composers that explores how music is organized and the roles it can play across the globe. The book is called Formative Forces in Sound. If you are interested, it’s available on Amazon here for $0.99 www.amazon.com/formativeforcesinsound

    What is Timbre?

    Before diving into this topic, I want to quickly go over what timbre is. Timbre is what makes each sound have a unique and identifiable sound. It’s how we can tell our mom’s voice from our sister’s voice. Or how we can tell the difference between a piano playing the pitch A and an oboe playing the same note. It’s the physical differences of the instrument or object and how vibrations interact with that object that gives everything a different timbre. A vibrating string versus vibrating vocal cords will sound very different even if they are creating the same pitch.

    Timbre is related to words we use to describe sounds like bright, dark, round, tinny, warm, etc. Each of those words is describing the frequencies that are produced by that particular instrument. Timbre can be very apparent and very subtle. It’s obvious to hear the difference between the sound striking a rock makes versus a gong. But it can be extremely difficult to hear the difference between a $40,000 brand new cello and an $800,000 cello made 200 years ago. The difference is there but more difficult to articulate.

    Why is timbre so important?

    Back to why timbre is perhaps the most important part of music. I say this because it may be the most ancient part of music that came to modern humans via apes. Spitzer points out that humans don’t come from a long line of music-making ancestors. Primates don’t have a sense of rhythm like insects, melodies like birds, or a repertoire of songs that adapt and are passed down like whales. Primates, aside from humans, don’t use vocalization as their primary way of communication – they use body language. But if we look at what does matter to our primate cousins it’s timbre or “tone of voice.”

    Spitzer’s example is of a species of Old World monkey from Ethiopia called geladas. Geladas have a wide range of calls that are typically used to “keep the peace within their harems.” Here is a short clip showing the sounds the geladas make.

    According to research by Bruce Richman, the geladas can have multiple meanings for the same series of sounds (word). One example he gave was of the sound that meant “a male’s friendly approach.” But he also witnessed this same series of sounds that were made with a tight voice that expressed the male had just engaged in a bout of threats with competing bachelor males. Richman says the gelada is expressing two emotional states at the same time by changing the tone of voice. Spitzer claims this is evidence that the emotional tone, contour, rhythm, and pace of voice are more important to the origin of language than previously thought. I think this also shows that the parameters that music manipulates (tone, contour, rhythm, etc.) have deep communicative power stemming from our evolutionary roots.

    I have truly enjoyed reading Spitzer’s book, The Musical Human, and highly recommend those interested in music to give it a read.

    The difference between calls and music

    Spitzer discusses the difference between a call and music. Some primates sound like they sing songs, but some key features make these calls and not music.

    “Male and female gibbons sing love duets, intricate and beautiful, sometimes lasting an hour. We also know of song in tarsiers, indri and langurs. The point is, however, that gibbons, tarsiers, indri and langurs are born knowing these sounds, they are the same across the habitat, and they never change. They are calls, not music.”

    Spitzer, michael. the musical human. 2021. pg 305

    My thoughts on this are that humans have hung on to this ear for timbre and rely on it heavily in speech as well as music. Composers think long and hard about what instruments they want playing which parts. But perhaps renewed emphasis on timbre will emerge with the knowledge that different timbres communicate at a deeper level. Timbre speaks to our emotions more readily than even rhythm, harmony, or melody.

    Examples of timbre

    Many pieces of music explore timbre and many traditions of music value timbre above other aspects of the music – particularly vocal music. Listen to these Tuvan throat singers and how they exploit a very specific timbre the voice can produce.

    Now compare that timbre to this Native American pow wow music. It’s more than a difference in style or pitch, it’s a difference in timbre choice.

    The examples could go on and on because there are virtually an infinite number of distinct timbres. Here is an example from Indian music. The singer’s timbre is more nasal and “pinched” than is typical in Western music.

    Concluding thoughts on timbre

    Timbre communicates before melody, rhythm, or any other musical factor. Think of how parents can tell the differences between cries of pain, hunger, fear, and frustration, that come from their children. The “words” are the same. There is no melody or rhythm to speak of. It is the timbre of the cry that conveys so much meaning.

    When listening to or writing your own music, consider the extreme power of timbre and how it can enhance your work and experience.

  • 9 Bach Chord Progressions To Use In Your Music

    J.S. Bach is one of the greatest composers of all time, so it stands to reason that you are on solid ground using his music for inspiration. Specifically, in this article, I want to show you how his chord progressions can help you write new and interesting music.

    Many musicians get writers block, and it can be useful to have some prompts that will take you out of your comfort zone. Here are 9 prompts from Bach’s chorale music. To jump to each progression, click the links below.

    Chord Progressions

    1. BWV 26
    2. BWV 262
    3. BWV 104
    4. BWV 121
    5. BWV 274
    6. BWV 43
    7. BWV 330
    8. BWV 245
    9. BWV 307

    I want this to be user friendly, so I’m not going to be doing a detailed analysis of each progression but rather simply giving the key and the chords. I’m including how to play each chord on guitar and piano. I’m also including a recording of playing these chords on piano so you can hear and get a sense of what they sound like.

    The way I use this is to play around with these chords and improvise within the major and minor chord progressions. If I find a chord progression I like, I will record it so I can improvise over it.

    When using these chord progressions, it’s useful to keep in mind that Bach wrote primarily using counterpoint (to learn more about counterpoint check out this article: What is Cantus Firmus?). This means his chord progressions sometimes veer off into interesting places – which is probably what you want anyway! He followed voice leading rather than “chord progressions” to write his music, meaning he took a “horizontal first” approach rather than vertical. Most pop and rock music are put together by finding a melody and a chord progression to support that melody. Counterpoint is a way to construct music in melodic layers. Either way is not better than the other, but both should be understood and part of your music writing tool set.

    I’ve written a short book that explores how music is organized and the roles it can play across the globe. The book is called Formative Forces in Sound. If you are interested it is available on Amazon here for $0.99 www.amazon.com/formativeforcesinsound

    Bach chord progressions

    1 – Bach chord progression from BWV 26

    Here are the chords as played on a guitar needed for this piece:

    Bach BWV 26 Guitar Chords

    Here is the chord progression laid out in phrases.

    1. am – E/G# – am
    2. am – G – C
    3. C – am – D/F# – am – dm7 – E7 – A
    4. A – A/C# – dm – B♭ – gm – A – G – D
    5. G – G/B – C – am – dm/F – G – C
    6. F – dm/A – E – am – B7 – E7 – A

    I love this because it sets up the listener and kind of tricks them. The first phrase is a clear i-V-i progression in a minor which sets up the listener to for a piece in a minor. The next phrase changes and has a V-I cadence in C major (the relative major key to a minor). Just in these first two phrases, the listener is engaged, unsure where this music may go – is it a minor or C major?

    Then the third phrase ends solidly in A major (the parallel major to a minor).

    The fourth phrase flirts with dm and ends in D major (a closely related key to A major).

    The fifth phrase ends back in C major (the relative major key).

    Finally, the last phrase brings us back to A major, but we never return to a minor.

    2 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 262

    This piece is in the key of D major. Here are the progressions laid out phrase by phrase.

    1. D – bm – D/F# – G – A – A7 – D
    2. D – D – em – D/F# – em7 – A7 – D
    3. A – A – D – f#m7 – bm7 – E7 – A
    4. em – em – A7 – bm – bm – f#m – F#7 – B
    5. D – D – G – A – bm7 – E7 – A
    6. G – D – em – D/F# – em7 – A7 – D

    I really like the way this one flows. If you look at just the last chords of each phrase you get:

    1. D
    2. D
    3. A
    4. B
    5. A
    6. D

    I think of it as phrases 1 and 2 are the A section. Phrases 3, 4, and 5 are the B section and phrase 6 brings it back to the home key of D major. Phrase 4 might be the most fun because it takes us to the V/V in the key of A major. From a “B section” point of view, phrase 4 ends on a half cadence. From a global point of view phrases 3 and 5 also ending on half cadences, which I think helps with the overall flow of the music – it keeps some element of anticipation.

    3 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 104

    This piece is in A major. Here are the chord progressions laid out phrase by phrase.

    1. A – A – D/F# – E – bm – A/C# – E – A
    2. A – F# – bm – bm – E7/G# – A/C# – E7 – A
    3. A – E – a#dim – bm – F#7 – em – F#7 – bm
    4. E/G# – A – D/F# – E – D/F# – A – E#dim7 – f#m
    5. f#m – bm/D – A/C# – bm – E7/D – A/C# – E – A

    I really like the use of the diminished chords in this one. Phrases 3 and 4 are interesting because they don’t go to the relative minor right away. For more info on diminished chords check out this article: What are Diminished Chords?

    4 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 121

    This piece is in the key of e minor. Here are the chord progressions laid out phrase by phrase.

    1. em – F# – bm/D – bm – F#7/A# – bm – F#7 – bm
    2. B/D# – em – bm/F# – G – d#dim/F# – em – am – B – em
    3. em – em/B – am/C – am – em – D/F# – G
    4. G – em – d#dim/F# – E7/G# – F#7 – B – F#7 – B
    5. em – D – G – G/B – D – em – B7 – C
    6. G – B7/D# – em – C – F#7/A# – B7 – E

    Remember these are supposed to be used as creative musical prompts, so listen to some of the chord combinations and if something works grab it. If there are chords in it that don’t appeal to you, feel free to throw them out!

    5 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 274

    This piece is in the key of g minor. Remember that the letter after the “/” is the note that is in the bass. This means the chord is in an inversion. If you are just beginning or just want to hear the chords, you can ignore this and just play the chord. For example, just play the gm chord with the normal G in the bass instead of the gm with the B♭ in the bass. It will sound pretty much the same.

    Chords

    1. gm/B♭ – gm – gm/B♭ – dm – gm/B♭ – f#dim/A – gm – f#dim7/C – D7 – gm
    2. gm – gm/B♭ – B♭/D – B♭7/F – gm7/F – edim – F
    3. F – F/A – A/C – cm/E♭ – D/F# – gm – am – D7 – gm
    4. D – gm – gm/B♭ – dm – gm/B♭ – f#dim/A – gm – am/C – D7 – G

    6 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 43

    This piece is in G major. In this one I labeled a few suspension (suspended) chords. I have an entire article on suspension chords but briefly here is what the notation means.

    Asus4 – “A” = the root of the chord. “sus4” = play the pitch that is the interval of a perfect 4th above the root. In this case a perfect fourth above A is D. So, the notes in this chord are A-D-E instead of A-C#-E. Typically in a sus4 chord, the suspended note in the suspension chord will resolve down to the 3rd in the normal major or minor chord.

    Asus4 to A

    BWV 43 chords

    1. G – em – D – em7 – am7 – G/B – G – Asus4 – A – D
    2. G – C – G – D – em – D – G
    3. D – D – G#dim/B – am – am/C – E – am
    4. E – E – E – am – am/C – am – B – B – em
    5. D – G – G – C – G – D
    6. G/B – C – D – C/E – G – Dsus4 – G

    7 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 330

    Key chords to highlight: E7sus4

    E7sus4 Staff Notation
    E7sus4 on Guitar

    BWV 330 Chords

    1. am – am/C – E – D/F# – E/G# – am – Esus4 – am – am E/G# – am – dm – E – am – dm/F – E
    2. am – G – em7 – F – dm7 – C/E – G – C
    3. G – em7 – E7/C – am/C – dm7/A – E7/G# – am – bdim/D – E7sus4 – A

    8 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 245

    Key chord to highlight: Asus2

    Asus2

    BWV 245 Chords

    1. E – E – A – E m7 – C#7 – D#7/F# – E – B
    2. B – F#/A# – D#/F# – E/G# – B – c#m/E – F# – B
    3. E – c#m – g#m – Asus2 – g#m/B – A/C# – E – B
    4. g#dim/B – am/C – C#7 – D – d#dim7 – E – B – E

    9 – Bach chord progressions from BWV 307

    As a reminder about the “7” notation using chord symbols like this:

    “7” = a minor 7th interval above the root.

    7th chord notation

    BWV 307 Chords

    1. B♭ – B♭ – B♭ – F7 – gm – cm – Fsus4 – B♭
    2. B♭ – B♭ – E♭/G – F7/A – B♭ – cm7/E♭ – F7 – B♭
    3. B♭ – B♭ – F7 – gm – F#/A – gm – B♭/D – F
    4. D7/F# – gm – D – gm – B♭ – gm – cm/E♭ – D
    5. gm – gm – E♭ – B♭/D – B♭ – cm7/E♭ – F7 – B♭